Cellular respiration is necessary to transform glucose into energy. The ATP created via chemical processes then powers cellular reactions. Aerobic respiration only occurs when glucose burns to release energy in the presence of oxygen (Russell et al., 2016). Three essential stages ensure proper aerobic respiration: glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle, and electron transport system.
During glycolysis, energy is released into glucose, and sugar is split into two molecules of pyruvate. There are ten stages in glycolysis:
- phosphorylation of glucose,
- isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate,
- phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate,
- cleavage of fructose,
- isomerization of dihydroxyacetone phosphate,
- oxidative phosphorylation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate,
- transfer of phosphate from 3-diphosphoglycerate to ADP,
- isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate,
- dehydration 2-phosphoglycerate,
- transfer of phosphate from phosphoenolpyruvate (Russell et al., 2016).
Glycolysis is the first phase that establishes the foundation for Krebs’ cycle and electron transport system.
Krebs’ cycle occurs in living cells when a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions contribute to the production of carbon dioxide, the formation of ATP, and the reduction of oxygen. This is the final stage of the aerobic metabolism of fatty acids, proteins, and carbohydrates. According to Russell et al. (2016), there are eight essential stages in the Krebs’ cycle:
- citrate synthase,
- aconitase,
- isocitrate dehydrogenase,
- α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase,
- succinyl-CoA synthetase,
- succinate dehydrogenase,
- fumarase,
- malate dehydrogenase.
The electron transport chain is the most important stage because it produces the largest amount of energy and takes place in the mitochondria. Ultimately, via the electron transport chain, NADH turns into ATP. It turns the electron transport chain into a proton pump that accepts electrons at the end of the chain. In Russel et al.’s (2016) book, there are discussed three stages that establish the electron transport chain:
- all electrons are transported from NADH to coenzyme Q,
- from coenzyme Q, electrons are transferred to cytochrome c,
- cytochrome c sends all electrons to oxygen. At the end of the chain, ATP is generated after protons have been pumped through the mitochondrial membrane.
Microbial growth depends on glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle, and electron transport chain because these three processes establish the basis for catabolic glucose attacks and support fermentative metabolism.
Reference
Russell, P. J., Hertz, P. E., & McMillan, B. (2016). Biology: The dynamic science. Nelson Education.
Dual Court System In The United States
Abstract
The United States has a dual court system with two types of courts: the federal courts and the state courts. The idea of the dual court system is misleading because there are 50 court systems in each state, plus the federal system, and the courts of Washington, D.C. (Carmen, 2013). The states have found a kind of compromise and supported the idea of two main camps that can present different points of view on the courts (Gaines & Miller, 2007). The system works the following way: lower courts are the primary basis for people to rely on, and then, trial courts of general jurisdiction may take place, after, people may address appellate courts, and the state Supreme Court is the final stage of the state court system. Then, the federal level is observed with the US District Courts, US Courts of Appeals, and, finally, the US Supreme Court that makes the last solutions (Carmen, 2013).
Jurisdiction and Its Role in the System
Neaubauer and Fradella (2013) admit that federal and state courts may have concurrent jurisdiction in some cases. It means that the role of the jurisdiction in the system is to make it more complicated. Jurisdiction is a kind of power that the court has while deciding on a dispute (Neaubauer & Fradella, 2013). As a rule, jurisdiction is limited in every court (Gaines & Miller, 2007), and the limitation depends on the type of the subcomponent defined: geographic (when courts have power over the residents of a particular area), subject matter (when the courts are restricted to hear some cases), personality (consideration of an individuality), and hierarchy (differences of social status, positions, etc.) (Neaubauer & Fradella, 2013). The state courts have general jurisdiction under which all cases should be heard and analyzed. The federal courts have limited jurisdiction under which only some cases may be viewed after they have been discussed in the state courts.
Members of the Courtroom and Their Interactions within the Criminal Justice System
There are several members of the courtroom with their roles and the possibilities to interact. The constant figures are the judge, who rules on the issues, a court reporter, who makes an accurate record of everything that happens or is said to the court, a bailiff, who takes care of the way of how jurisdiction is committed, and a clerk, who has to check if everything is in its place in the courtroom (Currier & Eimermann, 2009). Not less important still usually changeable members are a prosecutor and a plaintiff, who accuse a person of making a crime or breaking the rules, a defendant, who protects the rights of an accused person, witnesses, who give evidence to the case, jurors, a group of people, who gather and analyze all pieces of evidence, and the public (Gaines & Miller, 2007).
Opinion about the Courtroom Actors on a Federal and State Level
I think that the differences between the federal and state levels of the court system prove the fact that America is a powerful combination of fifty states with their ambitions, ideas, rules, and the abilities to be united and follow one single federal system. It is not an easy task to accuse, defend, and even observe the cases when a person’s future is considered. Attorneys have to be sure of what they are doing because their words and evidence may change human lives forever (Hemmens, Brody, & Spohn, 2012). Defendants should realize their words and support are addressed to the right people on federal and state levels (Cole, Smith, & DeJong, 2014). Though all players in a courtroom have their duties, all of them are bound with one goal – to make justice available to all people.
References
Carmen, R. (2013). Criminal procedure: Law and practice. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Cole, G., Smith, C., & DeJong, C. (2014). The American system of criminal justice. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Currier, K.A. & Eimermann, T.E. (2009). Introduction to paralegal studies: A critical thinking approach. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers Online.
Gaines, L. & Miller, R. (2007). Criminal justice in action: The core. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Hemmens, C., Brody, D.C., & Spohn, C. (2012). Criminal courts: A contemporary perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Neaubauer, D. & Fradella, H. (2013). America’s courts and the criminal justice system. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Criminal Justice Professionals: Role And Importance
The criminal justice profession implies fulfilling duties that meet the needs of various populations. All individuals and societal groups need security and protection, and meeting those needs make this profession valuable and rewarding. It makes both professionals and people feel proud and honorable. The functions of the criminal justice are not limited to arresting, instituting legal proceedings, and punishment. It has a greater purpose to meet the expectations of various citizens who need safety, protection, security, ethical behavior of judges, and an unbiased and non-discriminatory criminal justice system.
Safety in courtrooms is one of the needs of those people who are charged. Criminal justice professionals are responsible for the protection of every citizen under the Constitution and have to examine every case individually and without biases. People need to be guaranteed their security and protection by criminal justice professionals. They have to be sure that they will not be exposed to any harm, and any threats to their lives will be eliminated (Souryal & Whitehead, 2019). For example, residents of a particular criminal area may expect to be protected from possible gang attacks by the police. Similarly, citizens of a particular country need to be protected from terrorist attacks by the military officers.
Citizens also expect criminal justice professionals to be unbiased and non-discriminatory. They have to perform their duties based on the principles of rapid response, inclusiveness, and representativeness at all levels. People expect judges and lawyers to be just in their duties, and punishment must be fair, proportionate, and consistent for all groups of the population. A victim would expect from criminal justice professionals to give a fair judgment without any prejudice (Egharevba, 2016). All people need equal and fair treatment when seeking justice and expect criminal justice professionals to behave following moral and ethical principles.
People want judges to estrange themselves from immoral acts such as bribery or giving unfair treatment. Citizens expect criminal justice professionals to conform to the values and norms of the society they serve. Assuring rights of all populations to protection based on the law places high demands on the moral qualities of criminal justice professionals (Souryal & Whitehead, 2019). Judges, lawyers, and prosecutors have to meet these needs and behave properly. Many of them strive to make the general operation of the system more unbiased and unimpeded. This allows more cases to be resolved smoothly and without violations.
Citizens also want to be served by well-educated judges and lawyers who can critically analyze the case and offer reasonable solutions to the issue. Those society members that deal with insecurity need the professionals to implement proper solutions to this problem, for example, adopting policing strategies instead of using traditional strategies to combat crime in society (Egharevba, 2016). Thus, people require criminal justice professionals to be knowledgeable, and they want constant and widespread strengthening of ethical principles of judges in modern conditions.
Criminal justice professionals address the needs of citizens guaranteeing that they perform their duties as expected by various populations. They act following the established regulations, such as the code of conduct that govern their actions. They strive to assure that their behavior is guided by ethics and legislation provided by the corresponding departments (Souryal & Whitehead, 2019). For instance, judges act according to the code of conduct declared by the courts. Besides, they are continuously engaged in professional educational programs that allow them to deal with the needs of modern society. Professional development helps them to get new skills and acquire new knowledge that helps to deal with the challenges in society and the diverse needs of the populations.
Criminal justice professionals also try to increase their awareness of various cultures and get acquainted with different traditions and values of the diverse communities. They are becoming more flexible to the norms and beliefs of various groups of society. For example, they try to be more concerned with such controversial issues as gender, race, and sexual discrimination, as well as gun control, which enables them to be more efficient in making decisions (Egharevba, 2016). This also enables them to achieve productivity and develop trust in them among the diverse population.
Criminal justice professionals work in demanding conditions, and their actions are difficult to understand by people not related to this occupation. Thus, there are different stereotypes associated with the criminal justice system. One of the ways to combat negative perceptions of this profession in society is the proper education of citizens. It is possible to conduct awareness campaigns to allow people to learn about the profession and deeper understand its duties (Souryal & Whitehead, 2019). For example, educational programs can enlighten community members about the role of police and criminal justice in crime prevention. Besides, the engagement of citizens in criminal justice activities will make people appreciate this profession and decrease negative stereotypes about it. For example, people can be involved in crime control through community policing. This will benefit society and eliminate negative perceptions such as the incompetence of criminal justice.
People expect criminal justice professionals to protect and secure them, be knowledgeable, and make ethical and unbiased decisions. The perceptions of citizens toward criminal justice are related to both individual and social factors. Many society members are not fully aware of the responsibilities and duties criminal justice professionals have to perform. People only know that they control crime, but they do not realize the risks they take. However, professional development for criminal justice professionals and awareness campaigns for the population can help to build trust in this profession and eliminate negative stereotypes.
References
Egharevba, S. (Ed.). (2016). Police brutality, racial profiling, and discrimination in the criminal justice system. IGI Global.
Souryal, S. S., & Whitehead, J. T. (2019). Ethics in criminal justice: In search of the truth. Routledge.