The world’s most significant religions existed together for millenniums, and even in the modern world of globalization and science’s domination, they stay valuable worldwide. Indeed, Christianity has more than two billion followers now, and a smaller but older religion, Judaism, is being supported by at least fourteen million (Hicks-Keeton, 2018). The former was established on the latter’s roots, therefore the analysis of ways these beliefs developed within humanity’s progress can help understand various social processes. This paper aims to compare the history, concepts, and influence of Christianity and Judaism and discuss the Medieval conflict that appeared between them more than five centuries ago.
The religions have deep historical roots through which their central beliefs and traditions were formed. Judaism is older than Christianity, and it occurred more than four thousand years ago based on the Mesopotamian values of the Hebrew people. Scientists divide the history of Jews religion into Biblical (before the fourth century BCE), Hellenistic (fourth century BCE–second century CE), Rabbinic (second to eighteenth century CE), and modern Judaism (1750-present) (Carter, 2018). Christianity, in contrast, is much younger as it has been primarily mentioned in the first century CE. The religion is perceived as based on Judaism because Jesus’s mission was to change the Jewish values for helping the divine faith spread. Christianity became the primary faith in Europe and developed in the colonized countries due to its strong influence on people’s lives.
Both Judaism and Christianity are monotheistic religions: the former perceives God as the True Creator and the latter beliefs in the Trinity of his figure. Judaism’s faith defines all people as equal and encourages the followers to praise God through particular actions. In contrast, Christianity’s values are formed based on Jesus’s teachings and the experience of resurrection (Evans, 2017). Both religions’ beliefs are written in the scriptures – Holy Bible for Christians and Tanakh for the Jewish, where the concepts are supported by the events that prove God’s divine power. Judaism’s beliefs state that they were chosen to be God’s commandments, while Christianity centralizes the demand in following Jesus’s example to attain God’s mercy (Carter, 2018). The Jews dedicate their lives to acting good and making the world better, while the Christians follow Jesus in their attempts to reverse their sinful nature.
Religion had significant governmental power in ancient and medieval times, thus many laws were formatted according to the believers’ values. Judaism is strictly tied to rituals, and formatting regulations provided the ability to make all the procedures necessary to praise God (Hicks-Keeton, 2018). In Israel, the legislators tend to have Jewish roots and make decisions based on the religion’s definition of goodness. Compared to Judaism, Christianity’s law formatting power is much broader because the teachings of Jesus became central beliefs for various countries and had to comply with different traditions and social structures. Indeed, the religious institutions became the leading legislators in Medieval Europe, and the church regulated the countries’ social, economic, and cultural segments (Pohl, 2018). Consequently, many modern laws with European roots include Christian values and definitions of good and evil.
Both Christianity and Judaism applied the Ten Commandments as fundamental directions to their actions, and social justice was based on an individual’s dedication to following them. Christians evaluated the measures according to which of them were recognized as sins and went against the teachings of Jesus (Evans, 2017). For Jewish, the equality of people with different religions was crucial, and one’s willingness to do the good deems (Hicks-Keeton, 2018). No wars based on faith have involved Judaism supporters in contrast to dozens of the Christians’ battles with ones who refused to follow Jesus’s example.
Although Christianity is formed from Judaism, the conflicts between the two religions occurred throughout history. In Medieval times, the Christian church had enormous power in Europe and made numerous attempts to conquer the other religions’ supporters (Pohl, 2018). In the tenth to fifteenth centuries, various Jewish tribes migrated to Spain and France were judged by the church, imprisoned, deported, or executed (Carter, 2018). Theistic philosophy states that God cannot be the creator of evil; the Christians’ desire to establish their religion for the Jews goes against that fundamental statement. The number of Judaism followers has been significantly less than the Christians’, and their faith prohibited them from being harmful to the other faith’s neighbors. The reason for the conflict’s appearance is that Christianity defines humankind as sinners who must fight their nature and follow Jesus’s example in order to be saved.
Judaism is an ancient religion based on a group’s belief that they were chosen to praise God on Earth by doing good deeds, praying, and respecting others. Christianity was formatted as a segment of the Jewish faith, and its fundamental was Jesus Christ’s teachings on how to follow God’s will to have his mercy in the afterlife. Judaism maintained a religion of a specific group, mainly Israel’s inhabitants, while Christianity spread almost worldwide and influenced legislation, social justice attitudes, and overall history for many countries. The conflict between the two similar beliefs occurred in Medieval times because Christians discriminated against others for having a different religious basis.
References
Carter, E. C. (2018). Finding the voice of Judaism within practical theological research. Practical Theology, 11(1), 67-78. Web.
Evans, G. R. (2017). A short history of medieval Christianity. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Hicks-Keeton, J. (2018). Aseneth between Judaism and Christianity: Reframing the debate. Journal for The Study of Judaism, 49(2), 189-222. Web.
Pohl, W. (2018). Narratives of origin and migration in early medieval Europe: Problems of interpretation. The Medieval History Journal, 21(2), 192-221. Web.
Global Environment And Critical Threats To It
Introduction
The global society faces many challenges, some of which are localized, and others can impact every single Earth dweller. The two that pose the biggest threat are the rise in the ocean’s levels and poor countries remaining poor. Although only the first one appears to be related to the environment, the second issue is indirectly responsible for endangering it, as such states will continue using harmful technologies for various reasons. Many believe that the ocean level rise will only affect such places as Venice or coastline settlements. Meanwhile, no attempts are made to address the issue or relocate the endangered areas, which may have devastating consequences in the future. Both menaces will majorly destabilize the planet and impact its population, while also having an unlikely relationship. This paper will discuss the aggravating factors of the threats and humanity’s role in their development and suggest mitigating initiatives.
Contributing Factors
Poor countries continuing to be in the same position entails several negative consequences for the rest of the world. The first one is civil wars: states with a low per capita income tend to be associated with armed conflicts (Vestby, 1, p. 1). It can be argued that the relationship is misleading because such regions are peaceful nowadays. However, if the indicator is replaced with a strong traditional sector and a small relative labor productivity gap, the risk remains (Vestby, 1, p. 2). The violence may occur in several countries simultaneously, and victims are inevitable. Low-income countries are also vulnerable to climate change due to relying on agriculture and livestock and exhibiting high birth rates (Grace, 2, p. 479). Pregnant women are likely to experience stress because they still have labor responsibility or fear the shortage of resources (Grace, 2, p. 480). The situation may also lead to violence and interstate conflicts involving the international community. Lastly, poor countries will not change the current mode of production, which is associated with environmental degradation (Grunewald, 3, p. 250). Thus, at least factors make the threat particularly dangerous to the planet.
Although the ocean level rise is ultimately linked with the greenhouse effect, it presents an individual issue that is especially hazardous. What makes the threat dangerous is the effect on vulnerable populations and waste sites (Pickett, 4, p. 561). The former will be affected in several ways: their households are likely to be destroyed, the public transit system is prone to be damaged, and they may not be able to escape flooding (Pickett, 4, p. 561). Thus, the communities that already live below the sea level are significantly threatened by the issue. As for waste sites, their flooding will result in exposure to metals and petrochemical, adversely impacting the surrounding environment (Pickett, 4, p. 561). Furthermore, economic impacts from the infrastructural damage are anticipated, and public health concerns, which already exist, will only rise due to the release of chemicals (Pickett, 4, p. 561). Flora and fauna will also be affected, evident in habitat and nutrition loss, enforcing competition and increasing mortality (Pickett, 4, p. 561). Altogether, the ocean level rise will threaten vulnerable communities, biodiversity, and everyone in affected areas, forcing a migration deeper into the continent.
The geography of poor countries determines the combined danger of the two issues, as seen in the table built using The World Bank (5, 6).
| No. | Continent | Country | Income level (gross national income by capita) in $US, various years | Poverty rate (population below the poverty line) |
| 1 | Asia | Nepal | 1,090 (as of 2019) | 25.2% |
| 2 | Africa | South Sudan | 1,090 (outdated) | 76.4% |
| 3 | Africa | Tanzania | 1,080 (as of 2019) | 26.4% |
| 4 | Asia | Tajikistan | 1,030 (as of 2019) | 26.3% |
| 5 | Asia | Yemen | 940 (as of 2018) | 48.6% |
| 6 | Africa | Guinea | 930 (as of 2019) | 43.7% |
| 7 | Africa | Mali | 870 (as of 2019) | 42.1% |
| 8 | Africa | Ethiopia | 850 (as of 2019) | 23.5% |
| 9 | Africa | Rwanda | 830 (as of 2019) | 38.2% |
| 10 | Africa | Guinea-Bissau | 820 (as of 2019) | 69.3% |
| 11 | Africa | Burkina Faso | 780 (as of 2019) | 41.4% |
| 12 | Africa | Uganda | 780 (as of 2019) | 21.4% |
| 13 | Africa | The Gambia | 750 (as of 2019) | 48.6% |
| 14 | Africa | Chad | 700 (as of 2019) | 42.3% |
| 15 | Africa | Togo | 690 (as of 2019) | 55.1% |
| 16 | Africa | Eritrea | 600 (outdated) | 69% |
| 17 | Africa | Niger | 600 (as of 2019) | 40.8% |
| 18 | Africa | Sudan | 590 (as of 2019) | 46.5% |
| 19 | Africa | Liberia | 580 (as of 2019) | 50.9% |
| 20 | Africa | Sierra Leonne | 540 (as of 2019) | 56.8% |
| 21 | Asia | Afghanistan | 530 (as of 2019) | 54.5% |
| 22 | Africa | Democratic Republic of the Congo | 530 (as of 2019) | 63.9% |
| 23 | Africa | Central African Republic | 520 (as of 2019) | 62% |
| 24 | Africa | Madagascar | 520 (as of 2019) | 70.7% |
| 25 | Africa | Mozambique | 490 (as of 2019) | 46.1% |
| 26 | Africa | Malawi | 380 (as of 2019) | 51.5% |
| 27 | Africa | Burundi | 280 (as of 2019) | 64.9% |
| 28 | Africa | Somalia | 130 (outdated) | Undisclosed |
| 29 | North America | Haiti | 1,330 (as of 2019) | 58.5% |
| 30 | Asia | Democratic People’s Republic of Korea | Undisclosed | Undisclosed |
| 31 | Asia | Syrian Arab Republic | 1,820 (outdated) | 35.2% |
According to the table, the highest concentration of poverty is in Africa (77% of all low-income countries, 12 of them having the majority of the population below the poverty line). Considering that the continent has many coastline states, the implications both threats will entail are significant. The described factors will double, as the countries will have to combat the consequences of poverty and the ocean level rise. The vulnerable communities mentioned while analyzing the latter’s effect may refer to the majority of the population, while migration deeper into the continent is likely to aggravate the existing conflict. Madagascar will be deprived of the option due to being an island. Furthermore, most Sub-Saharan states are surrounded by other poor countries, complicating relocation, as they are likely to suffer from the same predicament. The infrastructure in those states is in the process of being established (Page, 7, p. 176). If it is destroyed during flooding, the implications will be disastrous. Much depends on the international response, which is necessary, considering the two threats and the accompanying factors.
The Role of Human Activity
Human activity has an integral role in aggravating the two threats. Poor countries are not in such a position because they chose it; the existence of wealthy states generates the issue. Most developing states used to be or are still indebted to them, which almost always negatively impacts their economic growth and private investment (Siddique, 8, p. 4). They also tend to be post-colonial, and recovering from the past is difficult, despite the support from the former empires (Jedwab, 9, p. 269). For the majority of their history, such countries were exploited to enrich the conqueror, and the situation has not changed. The high-income states may move production to poorer territories because it is cheaper and prevents environmental damage to the native land (Li, 10, p. 2314). Conversely, the developing countries have to suffer the consequences, including low salaries, increased emissions, and environmental degradation (Grunewald, 3, p. 250). Another dangerous practice is natural extraction, performed either by the state or a wealthier counterpart and contributes to the same issues (Kwakwa, 11, p. 33). Thus, high-income countries are majorly responsible for poverty perpetuation, especially in former colonies.
The ocean level rise threat, as mentioned, is directly connected with the greenhouse effect. The phenomenon is caused by gas emissions, a result of human activity (Kweku, 12, p. 3). The most prominent one is carbon dioxide, which primarily comes from fossil fuels, although livestock and various fertilizers also generate methane and nitrous oxide, respectively (Kweku, 12, p. 6). They majorly contribute to the warming of the planet’s surface and higher temperatures (Kweku, 12, p. 6). In turn, ice sheets, especially those in Antarctica, and glaciers melt at a high rate, and the ocean level rises (DeConto, 13, p. 596). Most of the damage was done throughout the 20th and the 21st centuries, and such a short period in comparison to Earth’s and humanity’s history was sufficient to endanger both (DeConto, 13, p. 596). The ocean level rise may occur naturally due to tectonic events, but human activity made the event abnormal, increasing its threat (Simms, 14, p. 1571). During the Pliocene, Antarctic ice sheets were prone to melting, although the temperature was lower (DeConto, 13, p. 591). Overall, the natural phenomenon has become dangerous due to human activity.
The role of humans in proliferating the two threats should not be underestimated, despite the fact that the second one regularly occurred in the planet’s history. Believing that it is natural that poor countries exist or assuming that only coastline regions will be affected by the ocean level rise may contribute to their danger as much as the actual activities. Individual people and organizations, especially those with many resources and sufficient influence, aggravate the threats, although they still can be associated with a particular country. For instance, such companies as Nestle exploit West African countries, taking advantage of their poverty and perpetuating it, and are involved in deforestation, which is partially responsible for the ocean level rise (Coppa, 15, p. 262). Similar examples are common and continue to aggravate the situation, requiring an immediate response. Even charity institutions and philanthropists with the best intentions regarding poor countries only cause more damage, as they either promote wealth concentration or benefit from it, contributing to inequality (Morvaridi, 16, p. 157). It is impossible to control everyone engaged with low-income states, so the global community should develop a solid solution.
Mitigating Strategies
Many strategies have been implemented to help low-income countries, and certain patterns suggest which should be continued. The most effective tool is to maintain their economic growth, although it can be challenging due to internal factors (Page, 7, p. 176). Other alternatives include direct cash and service provision, although they are suitable only as short-term solutions (Page, 7, p. 176). The international community may choose to invest in strengthening a country’s institutions and infrastructure, which is the surest path to economic growth (Page, 7, p. 177). However, foreign aid often bypasses the government, believing it to be corrupt, and while the worries can be justified, non-state organizations and actors do not contribute to the eradication of poverty (Page, 7, p. 177). Thus, international support should target both the private and the public spheres and overcome such challenges as the absence of will and insufficient capacity (Page, 7, p. 188). Consequently, a low-income country will have state-run service delivery and sustainable infrastructure after successful investment (Page, 7, p. 195). Thus, purposeful aid may facilitate economic growth and help the most vulnerable in poor states.
Many approaches to the threat of the ocean level rise exist, and they attempt to combat the issue directly, operating on the assumption that the greenhouse effect cannot be reverted. A potential solution is recreating past tidal regimes, which may save wetlands from flooding (Sadat-Noori, 17). They are considered the key to mitigating the effects of the ocean level rise, so preventing them from being damaged eliminates the need for implementing other measures (Pickett, 4, p. 561). Wetlands perform absorptive and filtering functions, which are instrumental in reducing damage from waste spillages occurring after flooding (Pickett, 4, p. 563). The Tidal Replicate Method is useful for protecting entire ecosystems, as it operates by simulating tidal conditions (Sadat-Noori, 17). Another solution is land raising, which is an adaptation technique and involves the use of sea walls as defenses (Brown, 18). Lastly, such a seemingly unfeasible project as glacial geoengineering can be used to slow warm streams, prevent shelves from moving, and reduce the amount of water below ice sheets (Moore, 19, p. 304). Thus, numerous strategies are worth considering for combating the ocean level rise
Unfortunately, the measures described above are only suitable for high-income countries, which can invest in long-term projects and afford expensive defensive techniques. Even land raising, while considered economically viable, may protect small island countries from flooding, so Madagascar, for example, will not benefit from the strategy (Brown, 18). Consequently, while facing the threat, low-income states have no choice but to rely on investments, and whether they will be distributed fairly is questionable. Thus, a complex strategy should address the following points: greenhouse gas emissions, infrastructure, and barebones anti-flooding techniques. As explored previously, most African states are vulnerable to flooding and responsible for climate change. Therefore, they will have to build protective constructions and reduce industrial waste while improving the overall infrastructure. An individual approach is necessary, as each low-income country has unique circumstances and different sets of issues to address. The desired outcome is financial independence for such states, which will allow them to protect themselves against the ocean level rise unconditionally, meaning that they should not be in debt after saving lives. The desired international support is mindful of local features and has a country’s best interests at heart.
Conclusion
The two threats discussed in the paper, the ocean level rise and poor countries remaining poor, are particularly dangerous for the global community. The first one will immediately affect coastline countries, which constitute the majority, and cause chaos among the rest, not to mention the environmental damage. The second issue will involve other states due to potential armed conflicts and natural degradation. Moreover, both are inherently connected because low-income countries will be the first to suffer the consequences of the ocean level rise, leading to many victims if nothing is done. Some may study the global poverty chart and notice that it is on the decline, choosing to ignore the threat. However, the African states will remain in a uniquely perilous condition that should be addressed before the worst predictions become a reality. The suggested strategies are not ultimately, but they consider the immediate needs of poor countries, which deserve to be fulfilled promptly.
Sources
Jonas Vestby. 2021. Why Do Some Poor Countries See Armed Conflict While Others Do Not? A Dual Sector Approach. p. 1, 2. Web.
Kathryn Grace. 2017. Considering Climate in Studies of Fertility and Reproductive Health in Poor Countries. p. 479, 480. Web.
Nicole Grunewald. 2017. The Trade-off Between Income Inequality and Carbon Dioxide Emissions. p. 250. Web.
Clarissa Pickett. 2020. Climate Change Associated with Rising Ocean Levels – A Threat to Coastal Areas. p. 561, 563. Web.
The World Bank. 2019. GNI per Capita, Atlas Method (Current US$). Web.
The World Bank. Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines (% of population). Web.
Lucy Page. 2018. Ending Global Poverty: Why Money Isn’t Enough. p. 176, 177, 188, 195. Web.
Abu Siddique. 2016. The Impact of External Debt on Growth: Evidence from Highly Indebted Poor Countries. p. 4. Web.
Remi Jedwab. 2016. The Permanent Effects of Transportation Revolutions in Poor Countries: Evidence from Africa. p. 269. Web.
Xiaoyang Li. 2017. Offshoring Pollution while Offshoring Production? p. 2314. Web.
Paul Adjei Kwakwa. 2020. Effect of Natural Resources Extraction on Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emission in Ghana. p. 33. Web.
Darkwah Williams Kweku. 2017. Greenhouse Effect: Greenhouse Gases and Their Impact on Global Warming. p. 3, 6. Web.
Robert M. DeConto. 2016. Contribution of Antarctica to Past and Future Sea-Level Rise. p. 591, 596. Web.
Alexander Simms. 2016. Tectonic Subsidence of California Estuaries Increases Forecasts of Relative Sea-Level Rise. p. 1571. Web.
Megan M. Coppa. 2021. Doe v. Nestle, S.A.: Chocolate and the Prohibition on Child Slavery. p. 262. Web.
Behrooz Morvaridi. 2016. Does Sub-Saharan Africa Need Capitalist Philanthropy to Reduce Poverty and Achieve Food Security? p. 157. Web.
Mahmood Sadat-Noori. 2021. Coastal Wetlands Can Be Saved from Sea Level Rise by Recreating Past Tidal Regimes. Web.
Sally Brown. 2019. Land Raising as A Solution to Sea-Level Rise: An Analysis of Coastal Flooding on an Artificial Island in the Maldives. Web.
John C. Moore. 2018. Geoengineer Polar Glaciers to Slow Sea-Level Rise. p. 304. Web.
Importance Of Development And Cross-Cultural Integration
Kimber, T. R. (2012). The role of spiritual development in the cross-cultural reentry adjustment of missionaries. Journal of psychology and theology, 40(3), 211-219.
Kimber points out that while there is much research on the adaptation of missionaries to a new culture, there is no research on return to the home culture and the feelings of missionaries. The author emphasizes that he established strict criteria when selecting research participants, such as age, time of residence in another country, time of return to the United States, the United States is considered the homeland. This selection did not include missionaries who returned home as a result of discipline problems, forced layoffs, and other staff problems, which provided the most accurate data on participants’ adaptation to the home culture. Kimber also takes into account a study that has not been previously conducted, namely, the attitude of the messengers to God after an extended stay in a foreign culture and returning to their home country. Concerning the relationship with God and the transition of change, the results showed a positive correlation between the TCS and SAI awareness scale. It indicates that missionaries who were aware of God’s presence during their return during the transition period also reported greater awareness of the change itself. The results also showed a significant relationship between TCS and questions developed by the researchers resulting in many participants feeling secure in their relationship with God during the second transition. The results of this study show that missionaries who knew about changes in themselves during re-entry also reported awareness of God’s presence and that they felt safe in their relationship with God.
Vasquez-Salgado, Y. & Chavira, G. (2014). The transition from middle school to high school as a developmental process among Latino youth. Hispanic journal of behavioral sciences, 36(79), 79-94. Web.
Vasquez-Salgado and Chavira emphasize that the transition from high school to high school has a negative impact on young academics, leading to lower school performance, as well as the effect of gender on grades. The authors conclude that the differences in academic performance among Latino youth are due to girls’ greater educational aspirations and teachers’ expectations of boys ‘and girls’ academic performance. Differences also lie in cultural values and norms, which are overwhelmingly followed by migrant families, placing greater responsibility on girls, leading to a gender gap in educational performance for both genders. The innovation of the study is that the authors consider high school, transition and high school, which allows for a closer look at the changes in academic performance among girls and boys in Latino youth. Thus, the results of the study lead to the fact that students with higher academic performance in middle school decline faster than students with lower academic performance. Overall, both results point to a disadvantageous position for young people with high achievement levels in secondary school and transition to secondary school, yet students follow a stable academic trajectory in middle school. The study proved that throughout the entire period of school, girls show a decrease in academic performance, while boys, on the contrary, increase academic performance, nevertheless, they equalize by the 10th grade. Despite the clear difference in the performance of boys and girls, the study concluded that by grade 10 Hispanic youth scores equalize.