Comparing Florida And New York Nurse Practice Act Free Writing Sample

Florida and New York Nurse Practice Act: Similarities and Differences

The main common feature of nurse practice acts in selected states is that they contain the general provisions for nursing professions. Also, both acts aim at ensuring that all nursing practitioners adhere to the requirements of safe practice. Another similarity is the definition and scope of practice of nurses. There are no significant differences between the states’ acts. However, some structural divergences are present. Also, the acts use different titles for assistive personnel: in the Florida act, such employees are referred to as “medical assistants” (“Florida nurse practice act,” 2008). In the New York act, they are called “support staff” (“New York nurse practice act,” 2010).

Florida and New York State Nurse Practice Act Standards and Scope

In the Florida state act, the scope of nursing practice for RNs is defined as the practice of professional nursing that includes:

• the observation, evaluation, planning, intervention, nursing diagnosis, health education, and wellness promotion;
• the administration of treatments and medications prescribed by licensed specialists;
• the supervision and instructing of other nurses (“Florida nurse practice act,” 2008).

In the New York state act, RNs’ scope of practice involves:

• the diagnosis, corrective measures, and therapeutic help;
• collaboration with licensed physicians;
• drug prescription;
• reviewing patient records promptly (“New York nurse practice act,” 2010).

LPNs’ scope of practice is defined in the acts of both states under comparison as any person who has completed a program in practical nursing and has received a license (“New York nurse practice act,” 2010; “Florida nurse practice act,” 2008).

The duties and responsibilities of unlicensed assistive personnel are similar on both acts, and they include:

• carrying out clinical duties (taking vital signs, preparing patients for procedures, making injections);
• giving first aid;
• preparing medical equipment;
• carrying out basic lab procedures (“New York nurse practice act,” 2010; “Florida nurse practice act,” 2008).

Florida and New York State Nurse Practice Act: Delegation Rules

In the New York act, regulations for effective delegation are described as unlicensed assistive personnel. It is mentioned that under the supervision of an RN or an LPN or after training, support staff can be delegated such responsibilities as tube feeding of patients, drug administration, and diabetic care (“New York nurse practice act,” 2010). In the Florida act, similar duties can be delegated: unlicensed assistants may perform aseptic procedures, administer medications, and perform dialysis procedures under supervision (“Florida nurse practice act,” 2008).

Florida and NYS Nurse Practice Act: Rules for Safe Practice

The explanation of safe practice regulations is similar in both states’ acts. However, both documents do not refer to these rules directly. Rather, they focus on the responsibilities of nurses and mention what punishment they will receive for violating them. Thus, it is possible, to sum up the rules for safe practice as follows:

• the administration of medications should be supervised by the RN or LPN;
• all procedures performed in healthcare facilities or at patients’ homes should be performed at the highest level, striving to minimize the risk for patients;
• nursing practitioners’ incompetence in some aspects, if not admitted, should be punished. If recognized, it should be resolved through guidance and education (“New York nurse practice act,” 2010; “Florida nurse practice act,” 2008).

References

About FDA: What we do. (2018). Web.

About the FDA patient education network. (2018). Web.

American Nurses Association. (2015). Code of ethics for nurses. Silver Spring, MD. Web.

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2018). Web.

Florida nurse practice act. The Florida nurse practice and the scope of nursing. (2008). Web.

Hunt, D. D. (2015). The nurse professional: Leveraging your education for transition into practice. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

New York nurse practice act. Education law: Article 139, Nursing. (2010). Web.

Salmond, S. W., & Echevarria, M. (2017). Healthcare transformation and changing roles for nursing. Orthopedic Nursing, 36(1), 12-25.

Weberg, D., Porter-O’Grady, T., Mangold, K., & Malloch, K. (2018). Leadership in nursing practice: Changing the landscape of health care (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Essay Voice-over

Fashion Media Effects On Society

Introduction

In the world of diversity and variety, one of the phenomena which are consistently present in society is fashion. Fashion can refer to many aspects of people’s lives, like what they do, what they eat and so on, but clothing the most visible manifestation of it. Clothing can not only change according to different cultural, historical and circumstantial contexts, but it is a way to express oneself. Davis (1995, p. 5) states that “clothing styles and the fashions that influence them over time constitute something approaching a code,” meaning the way people dress can serve as a statement, indicating various qualities.

However, whether fashion is significant enough in order to entail social and political changes is a somewhat controversial topic. Moreover, there are multiple ways of distributing information about the latest trends, which have their own peculiarities. Different fashion media like magazines, blogs, websites and social media platforms all publish fashion content. As fashion is inseparably connected with different spheres of people’s lives, it can subsequently fuel or enhance changes in society.

The Notion of Fashion

To estimate ways of fashion and society’s interplay, firstly, it is necessary to establish what fashion is and how it appeared. The fashion industry, as it exists nowadays, started with Charles Frederick Worth, who in the nineteenth century was the first to put his name on the clothes he had created. Nevertheless, it does not mean that before that, there was no fashion or style. In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, people paid great attention to how they looked, but following the trends was only available to the rich, and, therefore, lower classes did not engage in fashion.

In the twenty-first century, though, fashion became much more accessible and spread into people’s lives in many shapes and forms. Nowadays, fashion concerns not only clothing, footwear, hairstyles and accessories but also lifestyle, sport, careers and hobbies. Svendsen (2006, p. 7) describes fashion as “one of the most influential phenomena in Western civilisation since the renaissance.”

He also states that fashion has “conquered an increasing number of modern man’s fields of activity and has become almost ‘second nature’” (Svendsen, 2006, p. 7). Nonetheless, being the ‘second nature, it never stands still. Fashion is a changeable thing; it never stops evolving and does not follow some specific rules. It is the reaction to social events, and it is sometimes rather unpredictable, and its patterns can be hard to deduce.

Even being that important in the modern world, it is not something people have control over and can use. It is created by people altogether, but not one particular person doing something on their own. Thus, to become a fashion trend, there needs to be popularity, distribution between both people directly engaged in the fashion sphere, like designers, models, photographers and the general public. What can be used is the outcome of something becoming a trend. If a particular outfit, for instance, becomes popular and ‘fashionable’, that is when companies and businesses can exploit this tendency and make money from it.

This process of something becoming a trend and people getting extremely excited because of it was described by Back, who offers a dual perspective on it. He (2017, p. 403) wrote it is either “one of the crowning achievements of western civilization or it is incontrovertible evidence of consumers culture’s witless obsession with the trivial and the unreal.” This statement describes the development of fashion in the most general sense, but a ‘crowning achievement’ is quite a bold characteristic. In a world where technology and science are continually evolving and something new is discovered or invented all the time, deciding what is the most significant or most useful breakthrough can be challenging.

On the other hand, fashion can make people ‘obsessed’ over the latest trends, getting them to spend money on something that is intangible. The idea of beauty and belonging in the fashion world does exist and is very strong in the lives of some people. However, others will argue that for them, clothing and such do not matter. Therefore it is unfair to speak of an obsession over some ideals. At the same time, whether the person is or is not conforming to what is fashionable is a position of a kind in itself.

The fashion industry is undoubtedly an integral part of society and is connected to its many spheres. It cannot exist without human involvement and depends significantly on people’s interaction with fashion media sources. Hoschek (2006, p. 22) states that “The fashion system consists of the immaterial process of communication, fired by material clothing.” Thus, actual fashion items serve only as a way of starting a conversation. People’s response, attitude, and desire to be involved are just as important in the development of the fashion industry.

The Importance of Fashion in Society

In the modern world, all the spheres of life intertwine, creating an environment where fashion can influence everything from economics to medicine and vice versa. The connection of fashion to social phenomena is clear, but what precisely those phenomena are and how they correspond with the process of fashion production and consumption can be debatable. For instance, Barnard (2014) suggests that class, gender and aesthetics are all constituents of fashion design background.

How the fashion items are made can be based on multiple things, including class, gender and aesthetics; however, the primary foundation is the cultural and historical situation at any specific moment. This idea was supported by Azuma and Fernie (2003, p. 415), who considered fashion to be “deeply rooted in the socio-political settings, national and regional character of people, climatic features and technological advancement.” Fashion is a part of human society, which reflects social and political events and also relies upon nationality and peculiarities of a particular nation, among which it is spread. It is clear that the global settings, as well as the situation of a particular country, are the reason for specific trends, and they are also influenced by the said trends.

On the flip side, the fashion industry can also manifest in self-expression and individual perception of people. Fashion serves as a reflection of different social and cultural characteristics, as well as having an environmental background, and at the same time, it has a crucial effect on the creation of self-image (Au, Taylor and Newton, 2000). So not only fashion relies on society in general, but it also helps shape individuality.

Yet again, some people may argue that not considering fashion as something important in their life and does not affect how they or others perceive them. However, fashion choices do shape people’s image, whether it is conscious or subconscious. That is why clothing can be considered an indicator not only of self-image but also of social class and social identity (Au, Taylor and Newton, 2000). All the characteristics of the aspects mentioned above can be deduced from fashion items representing the person.

However, not always the fashion choices could be used as a form of self-expression, and Crane (2000) described the influence of fashion on social and personal importance by comparing its role in the past and present. Comparing industrial, class and modern societies, it can be noticed that in the nineteenth century, clothing served as a form of social control (Crane, 2000). Women and workers had to conform to a sartorial style, while in the present days, all people can take advantage of clothing to define their identities, which is based on lifestyle rather than class.

On the other hand, there is a chance of misinterpretation, as fashion does it speak in the same way as science would, for instance. Any fashion choice is about creating an impression, and impressions can be misunderstood by people with a different perception of the world and fashion.

Describing the role of fashion in self-image, DiMaggio (2002, p. 404) mentioned that “the extent to which clothing matters in crafting identity varies with the extent to which one’s identity is problematic.” He also considered “the extent to which discretionary income and the structure of the fashion industry converge to make suitable clothing items available” (DiMaggio, 2002, p. 404). Therefore, clothing can serve as the identification of many traits and peculiarities, but at the same time, it is restricted by the person’s individuality and the ability to invest in the right fashion items.

The Role of Fashion Media in Implementing Social Change

The fashion system can only exist when there are interaction and communication based on the discussion of fashion items and events, which helps to unify, organise and regulate fashion (Loschek, 2006). Thus, the existence of various fashion resources and media is imperative for the system to exist and function properly. Describing the stages and constituents of artworks production Becker (1982, 4) lists ‘support’ as “the residual category, designed to hold whatever the other categories do not make an easy place for.” Therefore a conclusion can be made about the importance of people’s attention to fashion and their interpretation of it. Whatever the fashion industry produces will not be sufficient enough without fashion media coverage.

Fashion media include, first and foremost, fashion magazines, which are the oldest way of bringing fashion to the public and arousing discussion of it. There are other media like photography and film, and blogs, which are the newest form of fashion communication.

Although it can be argued that printed media can become outdated, fashion magazines are still diverse and widespread. Moreover, they are vital for the existence of the fashion system, as they have been consistently used over the years. With the fashion industry continually changing, Moeran (2006, p. 735) states that “magazines serve to link new trends back to previous seasons in order to create a reasonably harmonic continuity and logic of progression.” So magazines help to make sure that fashion is a consistent chain of various trends, rather than random events, disconnected from each other.

Both fashion magazines and the fashion industry, in general, are said to consist of aesthetic and material aspects (Moeran, 2006; Aspers, 2001). Aesthetics refers to fashion being a form of art, to designer’s self-expression, to the creation of something different, fresh and exciting, as well as how it affects readers, what impression it makes and what emotions it arouses. At the same time, the material aspect deals with commercial processes like advertising of certain items, promotion and selling.

These two aspects intertwine in the fashion industry, and one cannot exist without the other. Caves (2000) described the process of interaction between designer houses and retailers, who buy their clothing for their future customers. Designers create ideas for their items based on past and current trends, also involving their personal creative vision and desire. The buyers of their items are more focused on what the customers will wish to purchase and have no objective grounds for selecting designers’ items. Therefore, even though designers themselves pay more attention to the aesthetical side, creating art, they cannot entirely ignore the desired reaction they want to get from the general public.

Even though the direct way of purchasing fashion items is in stores, fashion media play a significant role in customers’ interests. They direct people towards forming a specific opinion, and the more people read and share this opinion, the more widespread a particular idea becomes. This way, fashion media can prompt the circulation of opinions, which further causes changes to happen. At the same time, Ang and Hermes (1996) state that media consumption happens in different circumstances and by people with different attitudes, which may result in many-sided experiences and effects on the consumers. Such an idea is reasonable, considering the scope of fashion media circulation. People’s existing views can be influences by other opinions, but the influence will be varied.

The influence of fashion on society, economics and culture is very powerful, and understanding its force can help see patterns in society changes (Lemire, 2016). Still, some researchers disagree, and Stewart (2008, p. xi) stated that “Biographies of famous designers and studies of new styles have made on twentieth-century economic, social or gender history.” Nonetheless, fashion defines not only clothing but also lifestyle, and it would be impossible to believe that one does not affect another.

Fashion media can not only spread ideas quickly but make people believe in them easily. Some magazines like Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar and Cosmopolitan have existed since the nineteenth century, which makes them trustworthy and respectable, among everything else. Respect is won by not only history but the content in the present times too. Covers of most popular high-end magazines often contain pictures of popular and successful people from the art world.

Moreover, those covers depict creators and influencers in specific clothes from a brand, which works as a selling mechanism of its own. Other than containing some advertisement, the cover serves as an instrument of creating the “consumerist ideology that permeates the magazine as a whole” (McCracken, 1993, p. 15). So firstly, magazine covers influence both the sales of the magazine and of the clothes worn by the model on it and secondly, they help produce an understanding of the magazine as a whole.

Fashion magazines, therefore, are the ultimate source of communication between the fashion industry workers and consumers. As Moeran (2006, p. 730) concludes, “Without the clothes, without the images with which fashion is portrayed, and thus without the magazines themselves, there would be no ‘fashion system’ as such.” This idea confirms the necessity of not only having some form of communication between the fashion industry and consumers of fashion items but also of the physical manifestation of these communications like fashion magazines.

Fashion media, having such influence on people and their trust in them, are undoubtedly able to boost social and political changes. Clothing is often used in order to show someone’s positions. For instance, in 2017, the ‘Tied Together’ movement spread, supporters of which wore bandanas to exemplify human bonds regardless of race, gender or sexuality. Moreover, it started at a Tommy Hilfiger fashion show, where models, press members, guests and influences had a white bandana on them. In 2018 women all across America, even during the Golden Globe Awards and government meetings, wore black to support the ‘Time’s Up’ movement against harassment.

The rainbow colours now tend to represent the LGBTQ, and there was even a movement where people wore pantsuits supporting Hillary Clinton during the elections. So it is clear that fashion choice does not only appeal to beauty and self-image but helps showcase political views and belonging to a particular group or social movement. It has also been popular in the latest years to wear t-shirts with some extravagant or bold statements on them, through which people can also express their views on the world.

The fashion media are definitely taking all these trends and movements into consideration and describing them in detail, giving even more importance to a problem or movement. By doing so, fashion media help people see they are not alone and that others share their position so that they can act more willingly or openly. In this situation, people will then feel more encouraged to change their current lifestyle of even some world issues. Thus, the fashion industry can help people display their political or social views, while fashion media are provoking more significant changes to happen.

Conclusion

Fashion has existed since ancient times, but recently it has become more accessible and its functions more diverse. Nowadays, fashion is not only about clothing, but it also refers to lifestyle in general, and it has become a way of self-expression and plays a great part in society in general. In modern times, there much fewer restrictions on how people should look and what they should do with their lives, so more freedom are given in all aspects. With that, people can create their self-image through the way they look, even if it is rather extreme. Self-image, however, can be created in many different ways, and therefore it can also be interpreted differently, so it is quite controversial. Other than showing one’s identity, fashion choice can help illustrate one’s social and political ideas.

With such diversification of views and multiplication of ways of their expression, it is evident that fashion can significantly influence social, political and economic spheres. Fashion media take this influence even further, creating discussions and spreading ideas, which originated in the fashion industry but spread into the general public. Fashion media are firstly a way of displaying art objects, which are fashion items and appeal to people’s emotions and aesthetics in order to get feedback.

They help communication happen between fashion industry workers and other people who are potential consumers of their items. This communication is crucial in the fashion system, as without it and not having contact with observers, the industry could not even exist. On the other hand, fashion media serve as a commercial tool. By way of advertising, magazines, blogs, and others help promote fashion items and work as a selling mechanism.

To sum up, fashion gives excellent opportunities for people to express themselves and allows them to see and express support for others. Fashion media are a great way to implement change, giving publicity to major events and movements, which are supported by the fashion industry. As fashion regards multiple spheres of people’s lives, its manifestations can serve many purposes, and changing the world is definitely one of them.

Reference List

Ang, I. and Hermes, J. (1996) ‘Gender and/in media consumption’, in Ang, I. (ed.) Living Room Wars: Rethinking Media Audiences for a Post Modern World. London: Routledge, pp. 92-109.

Aspers, P. (2001) Markets in fashion: a phenomenological approach. Stockholm: City University Press.

Au, J. S. C., Taylor, G. and Newton, E. W. (2000) ‘East and west think differently? The European and Japanese fashion designers’, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 4(3), pp. 223-242.

Azuma, N. and Fernie, J. (2003) ‘Fashion in the globalized world and the role of virtual networks in intrinsic fashion design’, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, 7(4), pp. 413–427. Web.

Back, K. W. (2017) ‘Modernism and fashion’, Fashion Theory, pp. 398-407. Web.

Barnard, M. (2014) Fashion theory: in introduction. New York, NY: Routledge.

Becker, H. (1982) Art worlds. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Caves, R. (2000) Creative industries: contracts between art and commerce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Crane, D. (2000) Fashion and its social agendas: class, gender, and identity in clothing. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press.

DiMaggio, P. and Crane, D. (2002) ‘Fashion and its social agendas: class, gender, and identity in clothing’, Contemporary Sociology, 31(3), p. 303. Web.

Davis, F. (1995) Fashion, culture, and identity. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press.

Lemire, B. (ed.) (2016) The force of fashion in politics and society: global perspectives from early modern to contemporary times. New York, NY: Routledge.

Loschek, I. (2009) When clothes become fashion: design and innovation systems. New York, NY: Berg

McCracken, E. (1993) Decoding Women’s Magazines: From Mademoiselle to Ms. London: Macmillan.

Moeran, B. (2006) ‘More than just a fashion magazine’, Current Sociology, 54(5), pp. 725–744. Web.

Stewart, M. L. (2008) Dressing modern Frenchwomen: marketing haute couture, 1919-1939. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Svendsen, L. (2006) Fashion: a philosophy. Translated by J. Irons. London: Reaktion Books.

The Concepts Of Leadership And Management

The concepts of leadership and management are an essential discussion in business. Each company or organization maintains people who are in charge and the approach they choose to take strongly depends on personality as well as education and training. The field of leadership research has offered competent theories to outline the dynamics of being in a position of power. As industry players expand and become more complex, company executives need to acquire critical skills and balance leadership styles with management approaches. This report will examine the link between leadership and management, introduce theoretical behavioral approaches to leadership development, and use research to analyze the executive program at General Electric.

Comparison of Leadership and Management

Leadership is necessary for any organization to achieve its mission and vision. It is a process when an individual influences peers to work towards and achieve common objectives or outcomes. The concept of leadership can be developed into a focused, dynamic, and cooperative performance system. Interaction through dialogue and discussion can lead to influence and changes in organizational structure, operational procedures, key performance indicators, and the feedback process. Essentially, leaders help to select a strategic direction for the purpose and function of any given group. That helps to establish a compelling vision that drives achievement, encourages and inspires staff, and helps to navigate arising challenges. Without the presence of clear leadership, the diversity of backgrounds and perspectives existing in any group of people leads to confrontation and disagreement which is inherently counterproductive (Liphadzi, Aigbavboa & Thwala 2017). A leader can guide and unite varying approaches to work styles and problem-solving to harness productivity out of the joint effort.

Management is the process of oversight over a specific task from inception to execution. It is a tedious process of intricate planning, overseeing performance, and management of human, capital, and financial resources within the scope of the project and organization. Management implies discipline and competent adherence to performance goals. This includes creating, monitoring, and rewarding clear target objectives. Furthermore, managers must apply interpersonal skills to drive work ethic within subordinates. Management is utilized in a wide variety of sectors and industries; however, it is particularly crucial in the spheres of production and finances. An influential figure in the development of management practices, Peter Drucker, believed the essential purpose of management included a combination of marketing and innovation (Liphadzi, Aigbavboa & Thwala 2017).

Significant theoretical and academic research on the topic was presented by John Kotter who created a framework for differentiating leadership and management. Kotter argued that management has a central role in creating order and security, while leadership is necessary to drive change and fluidity within an organization. Appendix A presents some of the key components developed by Kotter. Managers have to maintain consistency within set timetables, budgets, and agendas with a focus on organization, structure, and control which, in theory, should generate efficiency in productivity. Meanwhile, leadership thrives on overseeing adaptive change and strategic growth through team-building and communication that is meant to empower rather than control (Liphadzi, Aigbavboa & Thwala 2017).

Leadership is an inherent component of management, providing the vision, guidance, and inspiration for others to achieve performance objectives. Management benefits of careful planning and execution remain mostly inefficient until workers seek to utilize them through the motivation driven by leadership. Despite a common misconception, many leaders are the foundation of an organizational pyramid rather than its top because they influence the company from the ground up. Managers help to administer function and structure within a company, overlooking activities and the overall mechanism of operations. Managers are common in the intermediary organizational levels, balancing management with execution (Răducan & Răducan 2014).

The realities of the modern economy have created complexity and volatility within business operations. Technological innovations, competition, market irregularity, stock market dependence, demographic or political shifts, and rapid industry transitions are influential factors in the global economy. Leadership has become a demanded skill in various industries due to the ability to create change. To remain competitive, companies are forced to adapt and innovate at a relatively rapid rate in comparison to industries of the 20^th century Răducan & Răducan 2014). Leadership can guide change since it is focused on driving forward a particular vision.

Meanwhile, management also has relevant applications within industries. Corporations and organizations are more complex than ever before, with extensive supply chains and international distribution networks. Management can help with maintaining control over the complexity and chaos by ensuring a mechanism of order and consistency which is tremendously valued by investors. Competent management addresses issues of quality control, budget planning, and product profitability. Managers can set objectives and create a list of steps and timetable that the target indicators can be achieved given the available resources (Răducan & Răducan 2014).

In conclusion, leadership and management are conjoined although they are significantly differing concepts. This link is necessary and complementary by offering various approaches to operating a project or organization. It can be argued that attempting to separate these concepts would create critical issues in the modern economy where human capital is valued tremendously. During the industrial era, workers were mostly disposable and undifferentiated in the production process. However, current realities value expertise and experience which each employee can offer (Murray n.d.). Leadership is not an official job position while management remains a critical part of the organizational structure. Workers depend on managers for not only an oversight but to define their purpose. Therefore, managers must adopt the role of leaders to some extent and organize operations in a manner that not only optimizes efficiency but helps to guide, inspire, and develop professional competency in employees.

Behavioral Theory of Leadership

Behavioral theories of leadership focus on particular actions, demeanors, and styles exemplified by leaders. Researchers adhering to this theory believe that behavior serves as the best indicator and predictor of the quality and influence of an individual as a successful leader. The inconsistencies in the Trait Theory of Leadership have led to the creation of the Behavioural approach which was a significant shift in research. Behavioral theories do not emphasize the inborn capabilities of a person but focus on the development and actions of a leader. If leadership can be outlined in terms of desirable skills and describable actions, then, theoretically, other people can attain these traits. Therefore, the premise stands that successful and competent leaders can be made rather than born since successful leadership is based on learnable behavior. While the approach is more widely accepted than its predecessors, there are gaps in research as no studies have been able to connect leadership styles with performance outcomes (Harrison 2017).

The first primary study on behavioral leadership was conducted by Kurt Lewin at Iowa State University in 1939, focusing on the concept of leadership styles. It was identified that two distinct styles existed: autocratic and democratic leadership. An autocratic leader made sole decisions and controlled employees under close supervision. Meanwhile, a democratic leader creates an environment of participation and close cooperation and trust with employees. Further research conducted by Tannenbaum and Schmidt in 1969 suggests that regarding employee participation, more than 100 behaviors could exist on a scale of varying degrees of leadership styles. While an individual may be either democratic or autocratic as described earlier, it is possible to have a combination of both styles (Van Wyk 2008).

The next breakthrough in behavior theory occurred in 1978 at Ohio State University. A study led by Nystrom determined new categories of leadership behavior: consideration and initiating structure. Consideration determines a leader’s sensitivity to subordinates, including establishing mutual respect and trust. This consists of valuing input, understanding challenges, showing recognition, and communicating on a personal level. Meanwhile, initiating structure is the degree to which a leader is task-oriented. This type of leadership is objective-focused and imposes a certain level of control over subordinates to achieve set targets. This includes motivating work ethic, establishing strict guidelines, and controlling deadline adherence. Both consideration and initiating structure categories are independent which means that a leader can hypothetically ardently practice both types of approaches or neither of them. Research shows that all four possible combinations of a leader exemplifying degrees of consideration or initiating control have the potential to be effective (Van Wyk 2008).

Researchers at the University of Michigan compared the behaviors of supervisors based on the effectiveness of their leadership. It was eventually determined that employee-centered leaders show consideration for the human needs and emotions of subordinates. Employee-centered behavior consists of providing support and close interaction. It is vital because by exemplifying support, such leaders were able to promote positive interaction amongst employees as a group. As a result, collaboration increased while conflict instances were reduced which contributes to efficiency in the workplace. This can be compared to the consideration aspect of the Nystrom study. Blake and Mouton sought to consolidate research findings from behavioral theories to date and created a comprehensive framework known as the “Leadership Grid” which showed the dynamics of leadership styles and when they can be applied (Appendix B). While some categories such as an impoverished leader have low concern for production and subordinates, others choose to either balance (middle of the road) or focus on a specific aspect of the leadership spectrum (authority compliance, country club). A team leader, which the researchers agreed is ideal and can be used universally in all situations, shows great concern for both optimal production and employee satisfaction (Van Wyk 2008).

In a review of the literature, it was identified that approximately 65 various classifications of leadership behavior. That number continues to increase as new theories are created, although more often than not, they are not compared to or disapprove pre-existing behavior theories. However, there is consistency amongst all the research that leadership behavior can be classified into the following categories:

1. Task-oriented behaviors – these are based on initiating structure and select transactional leader behaviors such a contingent reward and management by exception-active. They define specific task roles, dictate relationships within a group, coordinate all actions, and set performance standards (DeRue et al. 2011).
2. Relational-oriented behaviors – the leaders focus on consideration by exemplifying concern and respect of individuals in a group. They are generally more approachable and seek to empower others. Everyone is treated as equals, and a democratic approach is utilized to gain input from members of the group. Such participative behavior builds respect and focuses on employee welfare above efficiency (DeRue et al. 2011).
3. Change-oriented behaviors – these leaders are focused on promoting and executing the change in the organization. They are distinct from traditional leaders and are often eccentric or unorthodox. These behaviors consist of formulating and establishing a vision which is then facilitated in an organization by gathering support, promoting innovation, and taking risks (DeRue et al. 2011).
4. Passive leadership – this is the most ineffective type of leadership, which consists of inaction and a passive approach. They choose to engage only when challenges arise, and their subordinates are unable to continue operating on their own. It can create tremendous problems since a leader may not notice an issue at all or every solution would be reactionary which rarely leads to positive outcomes. There is no active interest or communication with the group, even in terms of work delegation. It is a laissez-faire approach but is often considered a lack of leadership behavior (DeRue et al. 2011).

Research on leadership behaviors is based on existing social and business structures in which leaders hold a formal position of power. The job inherently consists of a specific set of behaviors and roles which are more task-based than actual leadership. If someone failed to actively participate or fulfill job obligations, such actions would be symbolic of an underperforming leader which would result in the loss of power and respect from subordinates, even if that person was able to keep the formal position. Leadership effectiveness focuses on evaluating the individual in their position and the impact on outcomes.

The degree of participation based on the categories described above becomes critical in leadership effectiveness since every action, even if symbolic, can have profound effects. Behaviour is more predictive of leadership effectiveness than traits. They exemplify more indicators that are comparable to leadership as an action. Furthermore, although traits due impact behavior and demeanor to a certain extent, their manifestation can be tremendously affected by environment and circumstance. Traits are activated when specific situational conditions are met which may be detrimental if it fails to manifest. Leadership contexts are dynamic and vague which can suppress certain traits (DeRue et al. 2011). If traits define leadership effectiveness, it is a game of chance, but behavioral theory suggests that necessary acts of leadership can be trained to manifest when the circumstances call for them. Assessment of leadership effectiveness is measured when observed leadership behavior is exemplified by a specific situation.

Critics of the behavioral approach to leadership suggest that although the classification of leadership styles is valid, their application depends on the industry, environment, and situation. This led to a gradual paradigm shift towards Contingency leadership theory that implies that leadership styles can and should change based on circumstance (Van Wyk 2008). However, behavioral theories have laid a foundation for the study of leadership styles and actions which are utilized to create competent leaders in leading training programs of modern industry.

Program at General Electric

The company General Electric (GE) was created in 1892. Currently, it is a global conglomerate of various unrelated businesses in a wide selection of industries. It participates in manufacturing, research, development, sales, energy, technology, and financial sectors. Its commercial finance, energy, and real estate divisions are one of the leading brands in the global economy. The company’s corporate culture for the last decades has emphasized and rewarded professional learning and development. Each employee not only answers to a direct supervisor but is monitored by an HR manager which can impact career progression. The HR manager identifies, recruits, trains, evaluates, and rewards employees who show promise (Waters 2009).

HR tracks those seeking positions of leadership throughout their career. Competent candidates are recruited into one of many leadership programs that GE offers, lasting for approximately two years. They provide a distinct and varied education and experience. The programs use a rotational design that switches out candidates to different departments in the GE conglomerate to identify the best fit as well as provide valuable hands-on experience in addition to classroom education. It is meant to foster collaboration as well as a critical understanding of the company functioning like a well-oiled machine. If the program is completed successfully, it results in a basic supervisory position, and one enters the corporate management talent pool. With approximately 85,000 employees in that group, further evaluations, considerations, and higher-level training programs exist to identify the most competent and skillful leaders who go on to executive positions (Waters 2009).

The two-year development program is known as Corporate Audit Staff (CAS) is critical for GE’s organizational culture and growth. It creates leaders which are aware of economic realities and work with a strong finance-focused and analytical approach. However, GE executives realized that it needed leaders with in-depth expertise but similar dedication to company values. This led to the creation of the Corporate Leadership Staff (CLS) which is meant to specifically nurture and train future executives for the company with financial, operational, and technical experiences. However, it results in the molding of high-potential talent into competent leaders. CLS combines the most effective elements of CAS and other GE programs, emphasizing rotational approach, integration into real-world scenarios, and business organization. Since GE is a global company, and each geographic region has its intricacies, the rotational approach allows guiding candidates to acquire the skill set needed to function on their career path in the industry of choice. For example, China maintains a joint-venture market that is rarely used in other regions, requiring a leader to have operational expertise in this field. The program’s core purpose is to build leaders based on market-specific capabilities, ensuring the success of candidates that can finish (Tisoczki & Bevier 2014).

General Electric is known as a corporation that has tremendously improved the process of identifying and developing leadership and managerial talent. Having GE leadership experience, especially one of its grueling manager programs is valuable in any industry. GE is an outlier as the company has generated one of the largest numbers of top executives in the last decades which went on to lead various Fortune 500 companies and often increased their performance and valuations which serves as a testament to the effectiveness of training (Lehmberg et al. 2009).

GE utilizes what is known as leadership succession planning which is a strategic decision that is meant to protect the company and ensure stability in critical situations. Economic competition and global influences create a lot of pressure on large corporations to find executive leaders that are innovative, adaptive, and can push the organization ahead. The standard for the industry is the board of directors voting upon a CEO, usually someone already close to the top. A change of the CEO can be a turbulent time for any company, creating pressure from investors or a lack of clear strategy. CEOs usually step down due to poor performance or a crisis, which leaves a gap in company leadership even more detrimental, resulting in loss of stock value and other financial consequences. The CEO of GE Jack Welch (1981-2001) created a leadership succession initiative that took talented candidates from the aforementioned programs and prepared them for top executive positions include the CEO. It ensures that the organizational culture of GE is maintained, and the CEO comes from within its ranks, understanding all aspects of the company’s business and operations (Onatolu 2013).

This process of leadership selection is unique because it ensures a seamless transition amongst executives. The past two CEOs at GE have built their career in the company. During the last shake-up in June of 2017, the announcement of CEO departure and a new chairman named occurred on the same day. Furthermore, almost six months were given to gradually transition the current CEO Flannery into his new role. It had a positive effect on the company as many felt inspired by the change and shareholders showed confidence as stock prices went up 3% (Thomas 2017). Such rapid transitions in large corporations are rare as boards and shareholders can take weeks to vet candidates and select ones with compatible visions. GE’s leadership programs allow cultivating a leader that the conglomerate needs with utmost dedication to its values and prosperity. In turn, this creates a tremendous advantage for the company regarding adaptability and versatility in the volatile conditions of the global economy.

Theoretical Analysis

The leadership training and succession programs at General Electric can be described as following the dogma that “leaders are made.” Emphasis on skill, experience, and expertise suggests that GE values the development of leadership styles and behaviors. Specially designed programs such as CAS and CLS are meant to foster behaviors that it believes are critical to the prosperity of the company and adaptability to challenges of the global market. Most corporations do not utilize an internal leadership development program, especially to the extent that GE has. That occurs due to companies believing that they have the necessary leadership in place or they fail to see a return on investment. However, a competently planned leadership development program not only ensures future stability for a company but strategic leverage for talent and leadership retention.

Although GE’s program uses a much more modern and complex approach than behavioral theories of leadership developed in the late 20^th century, some of its components can be associated with leadership styles developed by behavioral researchers. For example, GE runs an intermediate manager program that focuses on fostering leadership behavior through team training. The offered curriculum not only seeks to address business concepts but self-evaluation as well. Managers were asked to consider challenges to promoting change including hard barriers such as organizational structure and soft barriers such as company culture and leadership influence (Prokesch 2009). This can be directly correlated to change-oriented behaviors in behavioral theory that, similar to GE managers, must balance task-oriented approach with promoting conceptual innovation. Furthermore, team leadership is evident here from the company executives since they are creating programs that consider both, increased productivity and increased employee satisfaction. Managers can receive better qualifications and opportunities which will then bring benefit to the company. Since adaptive change is considered a critical component of modern leadership, GE is attempting to implement these behavioral patterns into its training programs, starting at executive levels down to intermediate managers.

Employee development at GE, starting from entry-level programs is focused on fostering talent and leadership skills. Employees that have been with the company and those who have entered mid-career are provided with help for a development plan which is personalized towards each individual’s experience. For example, if GE were to acquire a smaller firm and bring its managers, it would need to include them in the organizational culture and leadership development programs. Someone without international exposure may be provided with an opportunity to travel while others may need direct sales experience. This process of development consists of continuous feedback and coaching, supervisor by senior management figures. GE hopes that interaction with experienced leaders will help foster and pass on skills necessary for entry employees to thrive and potentially seek leadership opportunities themselves (Krishnamoorthy 2014). In terms of behavioral theory, this can be considered relational-oriented behavior by considering the uniqueness and individuality of entry employees, especially those who have yet to show any benefit for the company. However, it shows that there is a concern for their transition into GE and their professional development.

Although GE’s leadership and management programs have a profound reputation, it is still important to consider whether they have value from a theoretical perspective. Research suggests that executive coaching focused on educating leadership competencies does indeed have an impact on leader behavior. Managers have shown significant improvements in developing organizational capability, creating a vision, developing strategic direction, and collaboration. This was evident through both external and self-evaluation (Smerek et al. 2009). Multisource feedback programs such as the ones at GE are expensive to maintain, which requires empirical evidence to support their utility and improvements to leadership and management concepts. Coaching has been found to influence leadership behavior since managers have a better understanding and are trained to respond to situations in a particular manner. Therefore, the intervention helps to facilitate behavior improvements in real-life business situations.

Conclusion

It is evident that leadership and management often distinct benefits to an organization. In the modern economy, individuals need to combine both aspects to resolve complex problems while inspiring adaptive change. Behavioral theories of leadership suggest that leaders can be made by teaching successful practices and techniques. There are a wide variety of behaviors that are represented by distinct leadership styles, each having its benefits based on the situation. General Electric has experienced tremendous success due to its innovation and pioneering in many global-oriented industries. It has produced a large number of transformational leaders by offering training programs and a unique mechanism of leadership succession which has become an integral part of the company’s strategy. It can be argued that GE partially adapted the behavioral theory approach by focusing on nurturing leadership skills and qualities within its company environment. It has a profound effect on the leverage power of the company and contributes to sustaining an efficient organizational culture.

Reference List

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Appendix A

Appendix B