Comparison Between The United States Of America And Japan Essay Example For College

Comparison Of Countries' Policies, Japan, USA

Introduction

Due to worries about energy security, climate change and sustainability, renewable energy has grown in importance in international politics. Currently, many nations are putting laws into place to encourage the development of renewable energy, but the methods used by these nations range greatly. In order to examine how and why their strategies differ, this essay will make a comparison of two democracies to compare the policies of renewable energy of the state of Japan and the United States; the research question of the essay will be; What accounts for the disparities between Japanese and American renewable energy policies? The Hypothesis of the essay will be the Differences in energy security concerns, national priorities, public attitudes, and institutional structures towards renewable energy can all be attributed to differences in political, economic, and cultural factors, which together explain the various differences in the policies of renewable energy between the state of Japan and the United States. This subject matter is important as the world’s two largest economies and top emitters of greenhouse gases are the United States and Japan. Their policies towards renewable energy, as a result, have a big impact on international efforts to combat climate change and advance sustainable development. We can learn a lot about the elements that influence the policies of national energy policies and find the best strategies for encouraging the development of renewable energy by contrasting how different countries approach this topic. Both the US and Japan have recently set high goals for the growth of renewable energy sources. Although the United States wants to produce 100% of clean and pure electricity by 2035, Japan aims to produce 24% of its own electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030 (United States Department of Energy, 2022). However, there are significant differences in their attitudes and strategies. While the states of America have a more varied portfolio of sources of renewable energy, including wind, solar, geothermal energy and hydropower, Japan has concentrated on fostering the development of solar wind power and solar. In order to understand the fundamental differences and similarities between the United States and Japan, this study will first analyze the literature about policies on renewable energy in those two nations. The causes of these discrepancies will next be examined using a variety of sources, such as government reports, scholarly studies, and media stories. This essay will conclude by making a few judgements and suggestions for further study and policy formulation.

Literature review

With the effects of the change of climate and the need to lessen reliance on fossil fuels, policies promoting renewable energy are becoming more and more crucial. Both Japan state and the States of America are democratic nations that have set goals for renewable energy and put policies in place to help them be reached. This part will examine the available research on these two nations’ policies of renewable energy in this review literature, noting parallels, contrasts, and possible future research topics. In one research study, Miwa. (2019) compared the efficacy of a system on feed-in tariff system in the United States and Japan’s renewable energy policies. The authors discovered that while both nations had put similar systems in place, Japan’s state had been more effective in expanding its capacity for renewable energy because of better policy execution. The regulatory environment is continuously changing. Therefore more research is needed to properly understand the effect of feed-in tariffs on the adoption of renewable energy, according to the authors.

The policies on renewable energy of Japan state and the United States were examined in another study research by Ahmad (2020) in the framework of their climate change and energy security objectives. The authors noted that while both nations had established challenging renewable energy goals, Japan had a more thorough regulatory framework that included demand-side control tactics and energy efficiency initiatives. The authors also noted that the States of America has a stronger innovation environment and a more diverse portfolio of renewable energy sources, which might help it meet its renewable energy ambitions. In their third study from 2017, Xiao et al. looked at the renewable energy political economy regulations in both Japan and the US. According to the authors, both nations encountered obstacles in their shift to renewable energy, such as government restrictions and opposition from existing energy interests. However, the authors pointed out that Japan’s more tightly controlled energy system and more aggressive government intervention could be able to assist it in getting beyond these challenges.

In contrast, a research study by Xu. (2019) examined the renewable energy policies of Germany with the United States and found that Germany had a more thorough framework that encompassed a variety of regulatory measures, financial incentives, and public engagement techniques. The authors made the case that the United States might benefit from the experience of Germany in promoting renewable energy policies and that further study research was required to comprehend the elements that contribute to effective policy.

The importance of subnational actors in advancing policies on renewable energy in the state of Japan and the United States was also the subject of research by Pop et al. (2019). The authors discovered that while local governments and states were important subnational actors in both nations, their levels of autonomy and impact varied. Subnational players in the United States had greater autonomy and could have a greater impact in promoting and enhancing renewable energy than subnational players in Japan, who had little power and were heavily reliant on the central government. Many academics have also asserted that divergent political cultures and ideologies have significantly influenced the development of renewable energy legislation in Japan state and the United States. For instance, academics like Mark Zachary Taylor (2017) contend that Japan’s emphasis on collective values systems, such as the advancement of the well-being of the society, has resulted in greater government involvement in the growth of alternative energy sources, as opposed to the United States, where a commitment to individual liberty has led to a preference for market-based incentives and free markets like tax credits. As a result, Japan has adopted feed-in tariffs more widely than the United States. The influence of institutional variables on the development of renewable energy policy in these two nations has been studied by other academics. For instance, numerous studies have emphasized the significance of administrative experience and the regulatory setting in supporting the implementation of renewable energy in the state of Japan (Cherp, 2017). The country’s measures for renewable energy have been credited to the Ministry of Trade, Economy and Industry of Japan (METI), which has also put laws in place to promote innovation and investment in this area.

The regulatory framework has similarly played a key role in encouraging the use of renewable energy in the United States. For instance, the Clean Power Plan of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which established goals for lowering carbon emissions from thermal power plants, was a major factor in encouraging the use of sources of clean energy by power corporations (Wiser et al., 2016). Also, a number of states have adopted Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS), which demand that a certain proportion of the electricity be produced from renewable sources. Despite these distinctions, several researchers have also found areas where Japanese and American renewable energy policies are similar. For instance, both nations have created programmes to encourage the installation of offshore wind energy. In contrast to Japan, which has devised a plan to produce 10 megawatts of power of energy from wind energy by 2030, the administration of Biden in the United States has established a target of 30 gigawatts (Ahmad, 2021).

The plans for renewable power in Japan and the US, however, have also drawn criticism. Some academics contend that the measures don’t go far enough to address the issues surrounding the change of climate and the shift to a reduced-carbon economy. For instance, numerous studies have critiqued Japan’s emphasis on nuclear energy and the country’s continued utilization of fossil fuels, including coal, in its energy sector mix (Miyamoto et al., 2020; Zhang, 2017). Similarly to this, some academics have claimed that incentives and laws in the United States have not been sufficient to encourage the development of renewable energy (Sawin et al., 2019; Turner & Gale, 2019). Overall, the evidence available indicates that both Japan state and the States of America have established challenging renewable energy goals and created programmes to reach them. Yet, there are variations in their frameworks’ policy comprehensiveness and efficacy, in addition to the place of subnational players and the political philosophy of energy. To fully comprehend these variations and pinpoint the most effective strategies for advancing renewable power policies in democracies, more research is required.

Analysis

Many aspects were looked at to test the theory that the variations in renewable energy policy between Japan and the US might be attributed to a confluence of political, economic, and cultural factors. They included societal attitudes regarding renewable energy, institutional systems, governmental agendas, and worries about energy security. First off, due to its dearth of indigenous resources, Japan has traditionally relied significantly on foreign fossil fuels in regard to a national priority. Due to this, measures like the implementation of feed-in rate tariffs for sources of clean energy in 2012 were introduced with the goal of reducing dependency on imported foreign fossil fuels. On the other side, the United States has placed more of an emphasis on energy independence than on energy security because of its significantly strong domestic fossil fuel resources. This has caused policymakers to be less aggressive in their promotion of renewable energy. Second, the contrasts between the US and Japan are significantly influenced by worries about energy security. Japan has been more aggressive in promoting renewable energy and diversifying its sources of energy since it is more susceptible to geopolitical threats. In comparison, the U.s has had less of a need to invest substantially in sources of clean energy due to its strategic partnerships and abundant domestic resources. Thirdly, both the US and Japan have different institutional frameworks. The stronger bureaucracy and more centralized administration in Japan have aided in the adoption of renewable energy regulations. In contrast, the American government is more decentralized, which has rendered it more challenging to put into practice cohesive national policies on renewable energy.

The institutional frameworks of Japan and the US differ significantly from each other in terms of their approaches to renewable energy legislation. Due to the government’s extensive regulation and control over the power industry in Japan, the administration government has a stronger impact on the execution of renewable energy legislation. The primary government agency in charge of regulating the power sector, including the support of renewable energy, is the Ministry department of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). A feed-in rate tariff system in Japan also mandates utilities to buy renewable energy at set prices, giving investors in renewable power security and stability.

However, the federal government administration in the United States plays a much smaller part in the implementation and application of policies related to renewable energy. Instead, state governments make the majority of the decisions regarding renewable energy policy, which leads to a patchwork of rules and laws across the nation. Although some states have adopted ambitious objectives and incentives for renewable energy, others have not. Inconsistent assistance for renewable energy has also been caused by the absence of a cohesive national energy policy in various political governments. Thus, the diverse approaches to policies regarding renewable energy between the two nations are influenced by variations in institutional architecture. And last, popular perceptions of renewable energy vary between the state of Japan and the US. The adoption of regulations promoting renewable energy has been aided by Japan’s tradition of energy power conservation and its strong awareness of public campaigns of the necessity to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas. Nonetheless, the individualistic culture and trust in market-based remedies in the United States have resulted in a more cautious attitude to policies pertaining to renewable energy. The theory of Political Economy served as the theoretical basis for the analysis. According to this idea, political and economic variables are interwoven, and the power structure distribution in society has a big impact on how economic policies are formulated. In this instance, the research contends that political, economic, and cultural variables influence the disparities in renewable energy regulations between the US and Japan. The following table contrasts a few of Japan’s and America’s policies regarding renewable energy and goals to highlight the findings:

Table 1 compares the policies and goals for renewable energy in Japan state and the US.

Target/Policy Japan United States
2030 renewable energy target 21-23% 20%
Feed-in rate tariff for solar power Initiated in 2009 and revised in the year 2012 Not executed at the national position
Net metering for the energy of solar Initiated in 2009 Initiated in the state position
Standards of energy conservation for building Initiated in the year 1979 and revised in the year 2018 Initiated in the year 1975 and revised in the year 2019

As can be seen from the table, Japan state has set a larger renewable energy goal for 2030 than the US, indicating that it places a higher priority on renewable energy. In contrast to the United States, which has depended on state-level implementations of net metering rules, Japan has also established feed-in rate tariffs for solar energy on a nationwide scale. Likewise, whereas the States of America has only recently updated its energy conservation rules, Japan has long-standing policies for conserving energy in buildings.

The analysis concludes that a combination of political, economic, and cultural reasons can account for the variations in renewable energy regulations between the two countries, the state of Japan and the US. These elements include institutional frameworks, societal attitudes towards renewable energy, energy security issues, national priorities, and energy security concerns. The results are in line with the theory of Political Economy, which holds that a number of variables, such as political power dynamics, economic interests and cultural values, have an impact on government policy decisions. Government activity in the area of renewable energy policy strategy is heavily influenced by the political and economic interests of various organizations as well as more general societal priorities and values. Overall, this analysis emphasizes the significance of comprehending the intricate interactions between variables that affect policy decisions pertaining to renewable energy and recommends that a means of implementing policy analysis is required in order to completely comprehend the dynamics that are at play.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the study is consistent with the idea that a combination of political, economic, and cultural reasons might account for the variations in renewable energy policy between Japan state and the United States. The results imply that policies regarding Japan’s renewable energy have been primarily driven by its focus on public attitudes and energy security towards renewable energy, whereas the United States strategy has been impacted by economic factors and institutional architecture. In respect of their strategies for policies regarding renewable energy, including the use of subsidies and incentives to encourage renewable energy and the development or growth of renewable energy technology, the United States and Japan share certain parallels with one another, according to the study. Yet, the disparities in institutional frameworks and national goals have led to different outcome policies. Other democratic nations that are considering introducing renewable energy regulations may be able to use the study’s findings. It is crucial to remember that each nation has a distinct political, economic, and cultural backdrop that could affect its policy on renewable energy. Comparative analyses between other pairings of democratic nations may be included in subsequent studies on this subject to further examine the variables affecting renewable energy policies. More investigation might be done to offer a more nuanced knowledge of the impact of the political, economic, and cultural aspects mentioned in this study essay on renewable energy legislation. Moreover, longitudinal studies might be conducted to monitor the development of policies regarding renewable energy over time and assess the efficiency of various policy instruments and tools in promoting the use of renewable energy. This study has brought attention to the complexity of policies regarding renewable energy making in democratic nations and the significance of taking into account a variety of elements to comprehend variations in policies. The results indicate that a variety of interrelated political, economic, and cultural issues influence policies on renewable energy and that policymakers must carefully take these elements into account when creating effective policies on renewable energy.

References

Robinson, G. M. (2016). Sustainable rural systems: an introduction. In Sustainable Rural Systems (pp. 19-56). Routledge.

Xu, Y., Ancev, T., & Betz, R. (2019). Sustainable energy transition toward renewables: Drivers and hurdles. Energy Policy, 134, 110959.

Miwa, S., Yamamoto, Y., & Chiba, G. (2018). Research activities on nuclear reactor physics and thermal-hydraulics in Japan after the Fukushima-Daiichi accident. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 55(6), 575-598.

Pop, I. G., Badea, C. M., Jaradat, M. H., Văduva, S., Prisac, I., Talpoș, M. F., & Pop, I. E. (2021). Considerations about Sustainable Development of the ENSEC (Environmental-Social-Economic) Systems. Transdisciplinary MEN (Megawatt, Ecowatt, Negawatt) Eco-Energetic Paradigm. Modern Perspectives in Economics, Business and Management Vol. 3, 26-58.

Xiao, Y., Wang, X., Wang, X., Wu, Z., & Liu, W. (2017). The coordinated development path of renewable energy and the national economy in China considering risks of the electricity market and energy policy. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 13(5), 2566-2575.

Cherp, A., Vinichenko, V., Jewell, J., Suzuki, M., & Antal, M. (2017). Comparing electricity transitions: A historical analysis of nuclear, wind and solar power in Germany and Japan. Energy Policy, 101, 612-628.

Ahmad, N., Aghdam, R. F., Butt, I., & Naveed, A. (2020). Citation-based systematic literature review of energy-growth nexus: An overview of the field and content analysis of the top 50 influential papers. Energy Economics, p. 86, 104642.

United States Department of Energy. (2022). US renewable energy explained. Retrieved from https://www.energy.gov/eere/renewables/renewable-energy-explained

Comparison Of Lewin’s Change Management Model And Kotter’s Theory Change Models Sample Paper

Change can be very challenging yet inevitable in any growing business. There are various change management models that have been developed to act as compasses to help when navigating through difficult situations. These models can be defined as theories, methodologies and concepts that help in the provision of an in-depth approach when organizational change is involved (Galli, 2019). Their major aim is to provide guidance when making changes, how to properly navigate through the transformation process, and how to ensure that change is accepted and practised by everyone. This clearly shows that these theories are meant to make the implementation of change easier, hence, solidifying it. The aim of this essay is to compare and contrast similarities and differences as well as strengths and weaknesses between Lewin’s change management model and Kotter’s theory models with a conclusion of the preferred model between the two as an agent of change.

Lewin’s change theory involves three stages, namely: Unfreeze, change and refreeze. The model perceives employees who have gotten used to a certain behaviour as frozen. According to this model, the first step in the process will be to unfreeze these individuals from their usual behaviour, bring the change on board and then refreeze it by solidifying it to be the new normal (Cummings et al., 2015). On the other hand, Kotter’s theory has been divided into three stages: Create a sense of urgency, build the change team, form a strategic vision, communicate the vision, remove the barriers to change, focus on short-term wins, maintain momentum and institute change (Kotter, 2020).

There are major similarities that can be identified between Lewin’s model and Kotter’s model. For instance, both models aim at building an understanding of why change is needed at that particular time. This enables people, or rather employees, to see why change is needed. In Lewin’s model, in the unfreeze stage, employees are made to notice the presence of new conditions. The management as well strives to capture the employees’ attention, which enables them to see the necessity of change (Levasseur, 2015). This as well takes place in Kotter’s model during the first three stages, which involve the change urgency, the building of an effective coalition, and the development of a change vision, hence creating awareness of the change and why it is needed (Kotter, 2020). Despite the similarities that have been identified between these two models, there is a clear difference that can also be identified. Kotter’s model provides an in-depth, step-by-step plan on how change can effectively be implemented. Lewin’s model provides a shallow process that does not break down the stages and processes in-depth, hence may not work when there is a need for a fast transition.

Both Kotter’s and Lewin’s models have great strengths that should be identified. Beginning with Lewin’s model, one major strength that can be identified is that it is relatively easy to implement (Kotter, 2014). Depending on the nature of the business, the method used by an organization to successfully implement change greatly varies. Lewin’s model has been termed as simple because it only involves three steps that are easy to implement as well. This allows the use of process diagram treatment, which allows the building of a chart (Levasseur, 2015). This chart can help in the visualization of the change process needed in an organization. It can also help identify and state any problems that can act as roadblocks hence hindering the change from taking place. Another strength that has been associated with Lewin’s model is the fact that this model encourages lasting change. This is because it first identifies the need for change. It also gives room for transition in the unfreeze stage before a change is fully implemented. One last strength that is identified in this model is that Lewin’s model provides a gradual approach that allows the creation of momentum (Cummings et al., 2015).

Kotter’s model also has strengths of its own. A major one that can easily be identified is that it has the advantage of developing a detailed plan on how best change can be implemented. This gives its users an easy breakdown of how to implement change successfully. The model also tends to put more emphasis on short-term wins that can help employees to positively receive the change hence making it successful (Cummings et al., 2015). Despite the great strengths the models have, there are also weaknesses involved. Lewin’s change model requires a lot of time before the change is fully enacted. This especially happens in the refreezing stage, which requires a lot of time to do away with the norm and settle for the new change. A major weakness of Kotter’s model is that, since it is a step-to-step model, skipping a single step may have consequences. This most likely means that skipping a step for this model will have a negative impact on the change process (Kotter, 2014).

As an agent of change, the most preferred model between the two would be Kotter’s model. This model excels when developmental changes are involved. The major reason why this model would be the most preferred is that it provides steps on how change can be implemented, and each of these steps builds upon the other. This means that skipping a step can hinder the success of the whole process. However, one has an assurance that keenly following the steps can provide an assurance of success in the whole process. The first step in this model is creating a sense of urgency (Kotter, 2014). This allows employees to be aware of a start of a change process and why it is needed. When building a coalition for guiding purposes, peers can be recruited to help in the management of change. This shows that the model allows or rather encourages employee participation. By forming a strategic vision, an ideal future is presented to the employees. This will encourage a volunteer army that can help in the enactment of change. Finding and removing obstacles from the way boosts the chances of the change implementation being successful. The sixth step in this is the generation of short-term wins, which encourages the celebration of every milestone gained (Galli, 2019). By sustaining acceleration, the stakeholders remain excited and look forward towards achieving the change, hence instituting the change successfully. The whole process, steps included, make the model to be exciting, and the assurance that when using it, success is guaranteed makes it to be the most preferred.

In conclusion, when a company has plans to introduce change into the organization, it is important that the management has knowledge of all of the models of change. This will allow them to analyze all the models as well as the situation at hand, and the change that is needed. It is clear that all the models recognize the importance of involving the human resources in the change process. This promotes the fact that, without involvement of the employees, the change process may fail. The leadership style embraced in an organization can also determine which model will be used. This means that when choosing the right model for implementing change, the leadership style should also be appropriate.

References

Cummings, S., Bridgman, T., & Brown, K. G. (2015). Unfreezing Change as Three steps: Rethinking Kurt Lewin’s Legacy for Change Management. Human Relations, 69(1), 33–60. Sagepub. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726715577707

Galli, B. J. (2019). Comparison of change management models: similarities, differences, and which is most effective?. R&D Management in the Knowledge Era: Challenges of Emerging Technologies, 605-624.

Kotter, J. P. (2014). CAPTURING THE OPPORTUNITIES AND AVOIDING THE THREATS OF RAPID CHANGE. Leader to Leader, 2014(74), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.20150

Kotter, J. P. (2020). Leading change: A conversation with John P. Kotter. Strategy & Leadership, 25(1), 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb054576

Levasseur, R. E. (2015). People Skills: Change Management Tools–Lewin’s Change Model. Interfaces, 31(4), 71–73. https://doi.org/10.1287/inte.31.5.71.9674

Controlling Emerging Diseases: HIV Sample Paper

Abstract

HIV is a common environmental issue affecting people globally. It has raised the alarm on how we should abstain from being influenced, creating a sense of realization in the community. With its tremendous effect worldwide, government agencies and non-governmental organizations are working on how to help the afflicted, for example, by providing out with antiretroviral therapy for free or, in some instances, at a lower price.1 This slackens the virus from procreating and helps fight minor diseases.

Introduction

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a disease that affects the human immune system and weakens the body’s defense against other diseases. Without treatment, HIV leads to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). HIV has no cure but with proper treatment, HIV can be controlled. With 40 million people affected with this disease between 1990-2021, it has raised several concerns about how people should abstain from being influenced. This has created public awareness in the community and the education center, where students are guided on abstaining.

Background

Origin of HIV:

Scientists reckon that between 1884-1920 HIV was first transmitted in Western and Central Africa, where Africans practiced hunting and gathering chimpanzees. While consuming the chimpanzee’s meat, scientists believe that the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) jumped into humans and mutated into what we acknowledge as HIV.4 Investigators appraise that by 1980 the strains of the virus began spreading across the other parts of the world. Urbanization, long-distance trade, changing sexual mores, and drug abuse are the major factors that led to the worldwide spread of the virus.

Agents of HIV:

The primary hosts for HIV are the white blood cells, also known as CD4+ T cells, helper T cells, or helper T lymphocytes. These cells are crucial in triggering the responses of numerous other immune cells in the immune system. Helper T cells that contract HIV promptly die. After primary infection, the body can typically replace lost infected helper T cells by bringing out more of them when HIV patients become asymptomatic. Steadily as time passes, the virus worsens, and the number of helper T cells gradually decreases.

Transmission pathways of HIV:

HIV is spread directly from an infected person to an uninfected person by exchanging body fluids such as blood and blood products, semen, other genital secretions, or breast milk. The main method of transmission on a global scale is through sexual contact with an infected individual. Intravenous drug users who share needles or syringes frequently contract HIV. When prescribed immediately upon diagnosis, antiretroviral therapy can minimize the risk of transmission from infected persons to their uninfected sexual partners by about 96 percent.

Moreover, long-term antiretroviral medication adherence can lead to an undetectable HIV viral load, which renders the virus incapable of being transmitted through sex. This phenomenon is known as “undetectable = untransmittable” (U = U). Coughing, sneezing, or casual contact do not spread HIV. HIV is weak and hence cannot endure long periods outside the body. Thus, the direct transfer of body fluids is essential for transmission. Other sexually transmitted illnesses such as syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia enhance the chance of obtaining HIV through sexual intercourse, possibly through the genital sores they cause.

Past policies and practices:

Many preventative measures have been shown to reduce the spread of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Over the past three decades, researchers discovered effective therapies to control the illness and various methods to lower the risk of contracting HIV and stop the disease from progressing to an AIDS diagnosis.2 Resources necessary to halt the epidemic were invented. However, it remains difficult to execute these measures successfully as HIV infection rates are still rising worldwide. Professionals in public health concur that using just one technique will not be successful. The following are different policies that were implemented

  • Harm reduction strategy

Sharing needles and drug paraphernalia is still a significant source of HIV infection, especially in Central Asia and the Russian Federation, even though many other areas are declining. Programs for exchanging used needles are an indirect tactic. To decrease the supply of contaminated needles and syringes circulating in communities, needle exchange programs issue clean needles and syringes and collect dirty ones. They typically offer education about the importance of not sharing the sterile needles and syringes they receive. Nonetheless, getting comprehensive coverage in the community is crucial to the effectiveness of these programs.

Drug users who are engaged in drug rehabilitation centers can have their urine routinely tested for the presence of narcotics. This tactic has been nicknamed “pay for a pee” by some. Negative pee tests earn them money. As long as clean urine samples are provided, these rewards often rise. However, a positive pee test stops the growth of these financial incentives and sends the user back to the start of the payment schedule. Although this approach works for drug addicts in recovery centers, it is less confident whether it will work for the entire community of drug users.

  • Testing

Many people are apprehensive about being tested. Many tactics have been created to overcome this resistance. The initial tactic was letting people submit to anonymous testing at designated testing facilities, with the understanding that if they discovered they were sick, they would seek medical attention. Self-testing is now possible because of the test’s administration’s simplification. Innovative tactics, like vending kiosks that sell home testing kits, have been used in several nations. Once more, it is assumed that people who test positive will seek medical attention.

  • Prevalence of same sex

In the last five years, the prevalence of HIV among males who have sex with men has multiplied tenfold in the Philippines. Effective HIV prevention strategies receive no national education, and regulations forbid minors under 18 from receiving HIV tests without parental agreement or having access to condoms. These elements are part of the epidemic of adolescent males engaging in same-sex behavior, which is worsening. Although the Philippine government implemented robust measures to combat the HIV epidemic among commercial sex workers in the 1990s, it has failed to modify its preventative tactics to consider the epidemic’s shifting epicenter.

Besides the fact that men who have sex with other men account for 81 percent of all HIV diagnoses since 1984, according to the Department of Health records, the government has not specifically targeted HIV prevention efforts at this group. The Philippine government has failed to offer comprehensive education programs on safe sex practices despite national legislation requiring compulsory sex education.3 As a result, the country faces difficulties in dealing with HIV, leading to an increased transmission rate.

Guidelines:

The 1989 International Consultation on AIDS and Human Rights, jointly convened by the then United Nations Centre, was the first gathering to examine the development of such guidelines. The need for a deeper explanation of how current human rights concepts apply to HIV and for examples of specific actions that States should take to defend human rights and public health in HIV became increasingly apparent to the international community.6 The following methods were carried out and recorded according to my investigation of three different states, Thailand, Poland, and Spain.

  • Access to testing

Provider-initiated testing, counseling, and free testing services were among the policy indicators expressly or partially followed in the three countries. While Thailand and Spain did not specify the high-risk groups, Poland was the only nation without a policy aimed at testing among high-risk populations. Both countries had rules that specifically allowed children to obtain testing without parental permission.

Several WHO (World Health Organization) materials emphasized confidentially and equality but did not provide precise instructions on protecting anonymity. These countries had regulations that set a cap on how many testing sessions counselors may conduct each day. Numerous WHO publications emphasized confidentiality and equality but did not provide precise instructions on protecting anonymity.

  • Access to care and treatment

Amidst WHO documents only implying free public sector access through the promotion of universal access to HIV services, free public sector access to PMTCT and ART was universally guaranteed, either explicitly in HIV policies, implicitly in national health policies, or stated in the national constitution.4 All nations encouraged using PMTCT during prenatal care, and all permitted clinical officers, medical assistants, or nurses to initiate ART.

The requirement for CD4+ T-lymphocyte (CD4+ cells) testing at least every six months in the pre-ART phase and for all recorded pre-ART visits in patient registers or forms was explicitly stated in all national laws. To guarantee registration at treatment facilities, explicit regulations on patient follow-up were implemented. In Thailand, service integration between ART and mother and child health was strongly emphasized. WHO’s 2010 Option B PMTCT protocol (Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission) was followed in both countries.

Current research efforts

The development of long-acting treatments that, unlike the present antiretrovirals that require daily dosing, could be used only once a week, once a month, or even less frequently, is a top priority for researchers studying HIV treatment today. Such long-acting treatments may be less harmful and more affordable for certain people than daily medicines. They may also be more straightforward for specific individuals to stick with. The three categories of agents being researched are long-acting medicines, broadly neutralizing antibodies, and therapeutic vaccinations.

  • Long-acting drugs

Longer-acting pills, as well as other formulations, including injections, patches, and implants, are among the next class of HIV medications that scientists hope to create. Due to the difficulty of making such products, NIAID (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases) formed a group of professionals who can promote interactions between the various sorts of researchers required to turn a concept for a long-acting HIV treatment into a practical solution.

The effectiveness of two novel long-acting HIV medications, raltegravir LA and rilpivirine LA, in patients who have had trouble adhering to traditional antiretroviral therapy, will also be studied by NIAID. Another research will examine whether raltegravir LA monthly injections and monthly infusions of VRC01LS, a broadly neutralizing antibody developed by the NIAID, can maintain HIV suppression in individuals whose infection was once under the control of antiretroviral therapy.

  • Broadly neutralizing antibodies

Several antibodies for the treatment of HIV are being developed and tested by researchers at the NIAID Vaccine Research Center (VRC) and researchers supported by NIAID at other universities. Since antibodies can be altered to ensure long-lasting effects in the body and because they have common adverse effects, dosing might be done every other month or even less frequently. Crucially, the antibodies being studied are broadly neutralizing antibodies, or bNAbs, and may effectively prevent various HIV strains from infecting human cells in the lab.

According to clinical studies, injecting specific bNAbs into HIV-positive individuals can, though in a limited way, suppress the virus. Additional research has demonstrated that treating HIV-positive patients with a single bNAb promotes the emergence of HIV strains resistant to the antibody. As a result, antibody-based therapy will need a combination of several bNAbs or bNAbs and long-acting pharmaceuticals to successfully suppress the virus, just as antiretroviral treatment needs a variety of medications.

  • Therapeutic HIV vaccines

A therapeutic vaccine might be the best option for treating HIV infection. A therapeutic vaccine, as opposed to one intended to prevent HIV infection, would be administered to those who have already contracted the virus.5 Quite a vaccine would improve the immune system’s readiness to combat any future resurgence of HIV, ending the need for additional treatment, possibly except for cyclical booster shots. By treatment or immunization, such a strategy might result in lasting undetectable HIV levels without consistent antiretroviral therapy.

Evidence that a therapeutic vaccination may conceivably modify the immune system in order to achieve long-term control of HIV is the existence of rare people with HIV who can control the virus spontaneously, either from the moment of infection or after stopping antiretroviral therapy.6 Yet, efforts to develop successful therapeutic HIV vaccines have so far come up short. The NIAID aims to expand the underlying research, especially to understand better immune responses that persistently suppress HIV and to boost the efficacy of those responses in order to aid in improving results.

Discussion

Pros and cons of various approaches:

Providing comprehensive HIV and family planning services improves healthcare professionals’ clinical skills, client satisfaction, financial resource mobilization, infrastructure provision, and availability of adequate human resources. It can also generate additional health-related resources for education and enhance knowledge on HIV and family planning services. About 5.3% of pregnant women have HIV, and 80% can get antiretroviral drugs to prevent the virus from spreading to their unborn children.

HIV-positive women in several African nations have an unmet need for modern family planning methods of more than 60%. Trying to ensure that women living with HIV have access to voluntary family planning supports the 90-90-90 global agenda, which the world is striving toward to meet the 2020 targets. An embedded family planning and HIV program can help women living with HIV with unmet family planning needs. The percentage of health facilities in sub-Saharan Africa offering comprehensive family planning services ranged from 10 to 61%.

It is well understood that an inclusive service can reduce missed opportunities and enable health professionals to offer HIV and family planning services simultaneously. HIV and family planning can be integrated, and there may be benefits as a result, but the factors in the health system will determine whether this integration is successful.7 It is a time-saving method that is affordable, has an acceptable waiting period, and saves clients’ time by preventing repeated visits. It can also reduce the number of times people needlessly visit healthcare institutions because women can get HIV and family planning services at the same place.

Statistical measures by researchers:

According to research done, the target site population included 1,200 service providers who were in charge of providing HIV and family planning services at public health centers in Thailand, 6,900,000 patients/clients who were in the reproductive age range (15–49), and 80 public health centers. Three hundred and one thousand three hundred and sixteen clients utilized family planning and HIV services in one year, including 75,329 clients who used family planning services and 225,987 who used HIV services. Jack Winston and Haber used a unified population proportion technique to obtain the sample size.

A two-stage sample procedure was used: 1) 31 of the 80 healthcare facilities were chosen using a straightforward random sampling method. In these 31 healthcare facilities with scarce funds, a proportionate distribution of patients and service providers was made. 2) From these health facilities, a stratified simple random sampling by the public health center and service type was used to choose 403 customers and 305 service providers (173 nurses, 83 nurse-midwives, 44 public health officers, and five physicians).

The information was statistically examined by descriptive analysis, summarizing frequencies, and cross-tabulation. Bi- and multivariable logistic regressions with estimated odds ratios, P-values, and 95% confidence intervals were used to examine the significance of the relationship between the variables. “The aim to use incorporated HIV and family planning services” was the dependent variable to calculate the logistic regression. Understanding the underlying variables for the intention of clients to engage in linked HIV and family planning services is crucial for effective facilitation.8 Marital status, family income level, and client satisfaction are the possible causes computed in multivariate logistic regressions.

Cultural aspects:

Tragedy looms over the spread of the illness, as with any pandemic without any known cure. Its unintended cultural consequences have been no less profound, igniting innovative medical research, difficult legal discussions, and fierce rivalry between researchers, pharmaceutical corporations, and academic institutions. Civil society organizations encourage wearing a red ribbon loop to show support and increase public awareness. Support groups provide extensive services, including healthcare, nursing, and rehabilitation services, housing, psychological therapy, meals, and legal assistance, as well as lobbying governments for funds to support learning, research, and treatment.

The AIDS Monument Quilt, currently displayed worldwide to collect money and highlight the human aspect of the tragedy, contains well over 48,000 panels that honor individuals who have died from AIDS. The United Nations launched World AIDS Day on 1st December 1988. Geographic and economic variables are frequently deciding factors regarding access to the most recent medical therapies for AIDS.

Senegal’s licensed prostitutes get regular HIV testing, and the clergy, particularly Islamic religious leaders, attempt to educate the public about the illness. In Africa, there has not been much development. For instance, some HIV-positive African men have established the practice of sexually abusing extremely young children due to the false perception that doing so may somehow cure them of the condition. Like the misery of war and the horror of the Holocaust, HIV/AIDS has had a double-edged effect on the world of creativity and culture. It has inspired both heartbreaking works of art and encouraging tales of tenacity.

It was discovered in 2009 that the prevalence of AIDS among homosexual men in various African nations was dangerously high—about ten times higher than in the general male population.9 Also, many homosexual males in those regions allegedly had no idea that the illness could be passed from man to man. Many believe that the harmful preconceptions, false information, and unpleasant habits linked with AIDS can only be combated by better education.

Recommendations

Healthcare professionals must be knowledgeable about family planning and HIV. Both clients (18.2%) and service providers (67.9%) pointed out the value of training healthcare professionals to successfully integrate family planning and HIV service, as suggested by Jaden and Martinez. To deliver high-quality integrated HIV and family planning services, these qualifications must include theoretical concepts, professional values and conduct, psychomotor skills relevant to the medical care for family planning and HIV services, ruling skills, good communication, leadership, management, and team building.

Even if they previously only had expertise in one of these crucial functions, healthcare practitioners can increase their knowledge and proficiency in both. To administer the integrated HIV and family planning services successfully, it is imperative to employ sufficient and qualified healthcare personnel. The medical facilities’ professional staff delivered efficient integrated services. The health facility level should also mobilize additional resources, such as financial resources and infrastructure, to provide quality service.

Advocacy

The level of client awareness is the factor that requires attention in order to improve the successful deployment of integrated services. In this study, most clients (93%) said that raising awareness was one of their perceived benefits. As a result, clients must be well-informed and accept the benefits of an integrated service for them to be employed effectively during service delivery. Along with educating specific customers, all service providers, and program officials, including health promotion officials and programming managers, should be tasked with educating the community about the benefits of an effective health service.

Nonetheless, it has been demonstrated that waiting times impact patient satisfaction and, consequently, the efficient use of integrated services in healthcare facilities.10 The waiting period for integrated family planning and HIV services is reasonable, in contrast to the findings of this study; a longer waiting period would have a negative effect on people’s intentions to use an integrated HIV and family planning service. As a result, cutting down on client wait times can positively influence the desire to use integrated HIV and family planning services at the level of the health facility.

Environmental Stewardship

Environmental stewardship is the ethical use and preservation of the environment through sustainable methods that increase ecosystem resilience and improve human well-being. Participants in ecological education emphasizing stewardship have the chance to engage with their local ecosystems and access resources that can help them comprehend how human behavior affects the environment. These initiatives inspire individuals to participate in managing and safeguarding these resources actively.

It is crucial to look at HIV prevention inside the communication framework provided by faiths like Christianity. Prior research has concentrated on ways to manipulate social impacts, such as connecting religious beliefs to health practices or using religious standards as a means of positive or negative punishment. In this regard (1999), it was noted that highlighting spiritual pride or shame can promote attitudes toward health practices. Churches and other faith-based organizations could be HIV/AIDS prevention tools. Between scientific preventative initiatives and sociocultural circumstances, these organizations offer helpful social resources and commitment.

References

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  6. Prado, Schwartz & Szapocznik, (2007). It prevents substance use and HIV risk behaviors in Hispanic adolescents—Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 75(6), 914.

  7. Centers for Disease Control, Prevention (US), & National Center for Infectious Diseases (US). (1994). Addressing emerging infectious disease threats: a prevention strategy for the United States.

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