Abstract 1. 0Introduction Behaviorism is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. This school of thought is premised on the fact that psychological techniques are used to motivate or influence human behavior. Behavioral Management blends the view of behaviorist and management theories to find solutions to teething and complex organizational issues.
Behavior management is similar to behavior modification. It is a less intensive version of behavior modification. In behavior modification the focus is on changing behavior, while in behavior management the focus is on maintaining order. Behavior management skills are particularly of importance to teachers in the educational system. Behavior management is all of the actions and conscious inactions to enhance the probability people, individually and in groups, choose behaviors which are personally fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable.
There is a great deal of research related to “behavior change” and “behavior management”. B. F. Skinner and Carl Rogers have given us two distinctly different approaches for addressing behavior. Skinner tells us that we can manipulate behavior by first identifying what the individual finds rewarding. Once we know the rewards an individual wants, then we can select those rewards we are willing to give in exchange for good behavior. Skinner calls this “Positive Reinforcement Psychology”. Rogers proposes that in-order to effectively address behavior problems, we must first get the individual to want to behave appropriately.
We do this by teaching the individual the difference between right and wrong including why we should do what is right. Rogers believes that the individual must have an internal awareness of right and wrong. 2. 0Conceptual Framework History of Behaviorism (Go to the internet) Behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Based upon the work of thinkers such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner, behaviorism holds that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes, rather than by internal forces.
Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning including classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research… Continue it Criticisms of Behaviorism Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings. Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcements or punishments.
People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement. Strengths of Behaviorism Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research. Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. . 0Managerial theories ( refer to your write up) 4. 0Contemporary examples Use the Doctor – Nurse agitations on pay rise and extra duty allowances 5. 0Conclusion and Recommendation In spite of the criticism against the concept of behavioral Management is it still relevant to managers in the management of health care institution in Ghana and other related sectors because it deals with the mind and the behavior of people and how psychological techniques are used to motivate and influence human behavior positively.
Love & Relationships
Abstract: In every relationship, there are two halves. One you can control, yours and the other is controlled by the other half in the relationship. This paper will emphasis on what it takes to have a true relationship with someone, rather if it is a friend or lover all the components need to be in place just like the solar system with the planets aligned. If your planets are not aligned in a relationship, it is doomed to fail. This paper will discuss the methods that are valuable to have a long lasting relationship if properly put into place. Egocentricity, have power over and fear will break almost any relationship.
Kindness, independence and love will create the most beautiful relationship: an enduring romance. Relationships & Love Relationships and Love are one of the most important aspects in a person’s life. I am reading a great book titled The Mastery of Love by Ruitz. This book shows great analogies of love and relationships. One of my favorite discussions in the book relates to the ultimate relationship is between humans and man’s best friend-the dog. This might sound frivolous but if you can have a long lasting relationship with a dog, you can have one with anyone.
There are some essential rules of relationships and love one must follow but it like teaching an old dog a new trick. Types of Relationships Relationships between individuals start every day, from purchasing a cup of coffee at the local convenient store to being in a plane crash stuck on a deserted tropical island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. While the later might be a less frequent, it will be a relationship with many individuals that last a lifetime. There are many types of relationships that can develop over a period of one’s life and I will discuss the most common.
Sibling A sibling relationship is between brothers and sisters, brother and brother, and sisters and sisters. The brother or the sister might be older or younger but they have an instant relationship as one is brought into the family. Sibling relationships persist over the entire life span for most adults. (Tetri, 2001). Sibling relationships in adulthood may be extremely close, or highly rivalries. The majority of sibling relationships in have been found to be close. (Cicirelli, 1991) At a young age, siblings can be a role model for a younger sibling.
Those siblings who are psychologically close to each other in adulthood tended to be that way in their childhood. It is rare for sibling closeness to develop for the first time in adulthood. (Dunn, 1984) Friendship There are many different levels of friendship. You could be an acquaintance with someone, you see in passing down the street or the local coffee shop. You could be a colleague with someone from work, school or church. The level of friendship is what is contained in the relationship and how it develops over a period of time.
You can develop a friendship at the barista at Starbuck’s if you are an avid coffee drinker and go there every morning; eventually the barista is going to remember you and the coffee selection you ordered. Friendship can develop from the first day of class. The first day of class the classroom is usually very quite. Until, you have broken the ice with the classmates and usually by class two it’s a loud ruckus in the room before the instructor enters. Here is an example of what true friendship should be and it come from the Bible. Jonathan and David, When David and Jonathan met; they became close friends at once.
Their friendship is one of the deepest and closest recorded in the Bible. They based their friendship on commitment to God, not to just each other. They let nothing come between them, not even career or family problems. They drew closer together when their friendship was tested. They remained friends to the end. Jonathan, the prince of Israel, later realized that David, and not he would be the next king. But that did not weaken his love for David, Jonathan would much rather lose the throne of Israel than lose his close friend. (Bible, New American Standard Edition, 1995).
Today, unfortunately friendship would not go to that level, we have close friendships but in society today not many would give up the throne for friendship. Marriage “I do” two of the life time commitment words many couples challenge. “I do”, is commitment towards your partner for the rest of your life till death do you part, in richer or poorer, in sickness and health. In today’s society marriage is very overrated, if you have a problem you go file for divorce instead of working on the issues. It’s OK to ask for help, although it is very hard for some people to ask for help.
There are many good benefits for a good marriage: 1. Married people live longer; single men have mortality rates 250% higher than married men; single women have mortality rates 50% than married women. 2. Approximately 40 percent of married people have sex twice a week compared to 20 to 25 percent of a single or cohabitating men or women. 3. Married persons are more likely to report feeling hopeful, happy, and good about them. 4. Married couples have higher incomes than single men and women. 5. Married men are more successful at work, getting promoted more often and receiving reviews than single counterparts. Maniatis, Weil, & Bondy, 2006) There are some benefits of being married, marriage is complicated. You have to find the right “life partner” that has the same intellect, values, morals, and dreams and want to succeed together. You have to be a team to survive in marriage. Just to get married and have an obstacle in marriage and get a divorce is not the answer you would want to portray on your children. You have to fight for equal justice in a marriage and be a positive role model for children and other young couples that look up to you. 6 Secrets to a Lasting Relationship
There are six steps that create a long lasting relationship. The structure of an intimate relationship rest on six pillars, which are the core of each of the 6 Secrets. Their initials form the acronym CREATES. Chemistry, Respect, Enjoyment, Acceptance, Trust and Empathy. (Goulston & Goldberg, 2001) CREATE We all want to feel a powerful chemistry for our mates-and to know what they feel for us. We all want to be respected by our partners-and to have respect for them. We all want to enjoy being with our beloved-and to be enjoyed. We all want to fully accept our mates-and to be fully accepted by them.
We all want to trust our partners-and be trusted by them. We all want to empathize with our lovers-to understand what they are thinking and feeling-and to have them know what it is like to be us. (Goulston & Goldberg, 2001) Chemistry Chemistry is defined as the study of matter and the changes it under goes. (Dictionary. com, 2009). One wants to think of chemistry in a relationship as a continuous attraction towards one another. You are eager to see that person as soon as they walk in the door; it’s like a magnet with a strong bond on the end.
Chemistry is not just an overpowering attraction to another person. It is also the feeling that he or she is as powerfully attracted to you. (Goulston & Goldberg, 2001) Chemistry has the ability to change from the fiery heat of fireworks to warm glow of a candle. It is only natural for the passion of early love to dissolve – and favorable to us, since our bodies could hardly stand up to the unending adrenaline rush. Respect R-E-S-P-E-C-T find out what it means to me. (Redding, 1967). One of the tops hits of the 1960’s and still is played in the year 2009.
Aretha Franklin did not know she was singing the words to a song that would carry on for a lifetime. Respect is defined as a feeling of appreciative, often deferential regard; esteem willingness to show consideration or appreciation. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2001) Respect is so important it makes both partners feel better about themselves. Feeling respected enhances out self-respect-especially when it comes from someone we hold in high regard. Respect is the second pillar in a relationship. Enjoyment Enjoy: “to enter in to a state of “rejoicing. ” Enjoyment means taking delight in the other person.
Couples that enjoy each other tend to smile, laugh a lot, and they can’t wait to see each other. They enjoy spending time together rather it be the ballet or a day of NASCAR driving. They make compromises to make each other enjoy the moment. Acceptance Acceptance is to receive some one, we take them in. Being accepting is invigorating. You feel sage to be real, free to make mistakes, to be silly, to be quirky, and to reveal you bona fide individuality without running the risk of rejection. You have to accept your partner for who they are, that is why you fell in love with them.
You would not ask your dog to change would you or could they? They are who they are, accept it. If you cannot accept it, it might be time for you to move on. Trust Trust implies faith and confidence in a person. You can trust on many different levels. Depending on the situation, depends on how and who you trust. You trust the barista to make your cafe latte with skim milk as requested. This is a simple trust factor. You trust your significant other to pay the rent. That is a huge trust factor as you do not want to live under the bridge down the street. These examples define two levels of trust.
If trust is broken in a relationship it takes many steps to mend the relationship. Empathy Empathy is not just a necessary ingredient for a healthy and lasting relationship; it is a practical tool for achieving it. Empathy involves briefly relinquishing your own points of view to tune into someone else’s. Empathy is not a way of behaving; it is a way of perceiving. Experiencing something the way someone else experiences it is a tuning in process, not an analytic process. (Goulston & Goldberg, 2001) It is a challenge to be in there shoes and experience things the way they process thoughts, ideas, and feelings.
Empathy enhances emotional connection, creating in most cases not only understanding but a deeper love and better companionship. Types of Love The only way to master love is to practice love. You don’t need to justify your love, you don’t need to explain your love; you just need to practice your love. (Ruiz, 1954) To master any type of love or relationship, you first must be aware of it. There are relationships we are born into, such as family. There are relationships that are acquired, from outside the family relationship. There are two parts to a relationship, your part and there part.
You have many relationships each day which include two people- yourself and the new relationship and no more than two people. This will start how we begin to fall in love. Intimacy Without emotional trust, you cannot have emotional intimacy. You might have sex, you may respect, enjoy and accept one another; but if one or both of you is withholding trust on an emotional level, something precious will be absent and you will yarn for it, even if you can’t quite identify what’s missing. Inside both men and women live two conflicting needs: for intimacy and for independence.
Intimacy tends to mean more for women and independence means more to men. Women act more emotional when rejected by their man. Men react more strongly when their mates threaten their autonomy. Romantic Love Romantic love came from the ancient Greek philosophy and literature. Many think of romantic love in ways of poems, plays and fables that were developed in the Romanticism era. Many songs, poems and plays today are about love and when the love fails. Sexuality and infatuation go hand in hand with romantic love. When you are in romantic love you have many feelings, fear, anger, sexual desire, joy, and jealousy.
In society today, many believe that romantic love is most important the reason to get married. Affectionate Love Affectionate love also known as companionate love. It is a feeling towards another that is a deep fondness, feeling or emotion toward one. In the Bible, having so fond an affection for you, we were well-pleased to impart to you not only the gospel of God but also out own lives, because you had become very dear to us. (1Thessalonians 2:8). Affectionate love is the true meaning of any relationship; it is a building block for an ideal relationship. You must have affectionate love in a relationship to make it an everlasting one.
Love Triangle Three key elements-intimacy, passion and commitment form the triangle of love. Relationships based on a single element are less likely to survive than ones based on two or more. Couples with a similar triangle tend to be more satisfied in their relationship that couples with dissimilar thoughts. Forms of Love Elements Romantic LoveIntimacyPassionCommitment Compassionate LoveDecision/ Commitment Fatuous Love (Whirlwind Romance)PassionDecision/ Commitment Consummate LoveIntimacyPassionDecision/ Commitment Figure 1 (Maniatis, Weil, & Bondy, 2006) Intimacy Liking, Friendship PassionDecision/Commitment
Infatuation, LustCommitment to stay in relationship Figure 2 (Maniatis, Weil, & Bondy, 2006) Love and relationships are a very complicated matter. There are many aspects that go hand in hand to have the perfect love and relationships. It is just not one component, there are many as discussed in this paper. You have to put the entire component together to form the perfect love and relationship. I am not saying there is the perfect love and relationship but as long as you put together and practice some of the components you can start to build the ideal relationship with God in your heart and it will keep on forever.
You must have God in your heart to start the relationship and the other will come hand in hand as long as you practice all the components. References American Heritage Dictionary. (2001). New York City. Bible, New American Standard Edition. (1995). The Bible. In The Bible (pp. 474 1 Samuel 18:1- 9). Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Cicirelli, V. (1991). Sibling relationships in adulthood. Marriage and Family Review , 291-310. Dictionary. com. (2009, August 3). Retrieved August 3, 2009, from An ask. com website: www. dictionary. com Dunn, J. (1984). Sibling Studies and the development impact of critical incidents. In &. O. P. B.
Baltes, Life Span Development & Behavior (Vol. 6). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Goulston, M. M. , & Goldberg, P. (2001). The 6 Secrets of a Lasting Relationship. New York City: Berkley Publishing Group. Maniatis, A. , Weil, E. , & Bondy, N. (2006). Love Notes. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Redding, O. (Composer). (1967). RESPECT. [A. Franklin, Performer, & Unknown, Conductor] Los Angeles, CA, USA. Ruiz, D. M. (1954). The Mastery of Love; The practical guide to the art of relationships. San Rafael CA: Amber Allen Publishing. Tetri, D. (2001). Retrospect and prospect in the study or sibling relationships. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Characteristics Of Enterlanguage Essay
Interlanguage In the following summary of our presentation about interlanguage I will sum up the most important points while investigating the key aspects of the topic: First of all, a brief definition about the term “interlanguage” will be given and then a description of the reasons that cause the emergence of an interlanguage system. The third point will focus on the characteristics of interlanguage and central processes while acquiring it. Finally, a short conclusion will be given at the end of this paper. 1. What is interlanguage?
Among linguists, no exact, comprehensive and universally accepted definition of interlanguage exists. However, there is a broad consensus that the term refers to an intermediate grammatical system that is different from the L1 grammar as well as from the TL grammar. [1] The rules used by the learner are to be found in neither his own mother tongue, nor in the Target Language. It is a third language, with e. g. its own grammar and its own lexicon. This definition is based on Selinker’s definition of interlanguage.
In his days he was so influential that even today his work plays a major role in the concept of interlanguage. To explain the phenomenon of a “third language”, one can say that interlanguage is based on the concept of language transfer – the learner uses his or her own L1 as a resource. All learning is shaped by past activities, experiences and knowledge. These concepts lead us to the second question: 2. What causes interlanguage? We can say that L1 rules and principles work like a ‘sieve’[2] for the second language and create interlanguage.
Only exposure to TL (experience) is going to cause the holes in the sieve to enlarge so that second language will be produced accurately. An example of this can be made by comparing Czech and English. One difference is that in Czech [b], [d], [g], [v] become voiceless word-finally (as in korab [p], nerad [t], konev [f]). However, this is not the case in English (e. g. bib [b], lid [d], fig [g], five [v]). It is likely that Czech learners of English are not capable of noticing the difference between the Czech and English system and with negative transfer this will result in the development of an interlanguage. . Characteristics of interlanguage and central processes The boundaries between the beginning and the end of an interlanguage are not clear. However, variant forms of interlanguage can be differentiated. The systematic characteristic is when the interlanguage is governed by rules (from L1) that form the learner‘s internal grammar. The second type of interlanguage is dynamic; it is when the learner‘s rule system changes frequently and can result in a chain of temporary grammars.
The variable interlanguage is defined as a compound of the two previous characteristics: Although the interlanguage is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use. Ultimately the reduced system describes interlanguage in form and function, as a less complex grammatical structure (form) and a smaller range of communicative needs (function) typically served by an interlanguage. Furthermore, there are five central processes that cause interlanguage. The first one is Language Transfer where the learner uses his L1 as a resource for his L2.
The second process is the Transfer-of-Training which occurs whenever the effects of prior learning influence the performance of a later activity. For example, this could explain the difficulty of the distinction between “he” and “she” due to stronger usage of “he” in the learner’s textbooks. The third process is the Strategy of Second-language Learning and describes how learners approach the L2 materials and the task of L2 learning, with the learner’s tendency of simplifying the L2 system.
The forth central process is the Strategy of Second-language Communication, which describes ways that learners try to communicate with native speakers of the target language. The last process is called Overgeneralization which is the application of a form or rule not only to context where it applies, but also to other contexts where it does not apply (e. g. double negation). Again based on Selinker there has also been an expansion of these processes.
Among those are processes like simplification, where the learner uses speech that resembles that of very young children or U-shaped behavior, where the appearance of correct, or nativelike, forms occur at an early stage of development which then undergo a process of attrition 5. Conclusion Many IL linguistic structures are never really eradicated for most second language learners, manifestations of structures reappear in interlanguage productive performance especially under conditions of anxiety or shifting attention or something that is new for the learner.
It is natural that interlanguage occurs but it does not necessarily have to be negative; but it is important to retreat from the „mistakes“ and adjust the various “wrong” applications to relevant contexts. Bibliography: Books: Ellis, Rod (1994): The study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ortega, L. (2009): Chapter 6: Development of learner language. Understanding second language acquisition (110-144). London: Hodder Arnold. Saville-Troike, Muriel (2006): Introducing second language acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Selinker, Larry (1972): Interlanguage. IRAL 10, 209-231. Trubetzkoy, N. S. Principles of Phonology. Univ of California Pr, 1969. Web: “Foreign Accent. ” 2008. Palacky University, Department of English and American Studies. 24 Jan. 2009 . Mason, Timothy. Interlanguage. 11 June 2009 . ———————– [1] “Foreign Accent. ” 2008. Palacky University, Department of English and American Studies. 24 Jan. 2009 . [2] N. S. Trubetzkoy, Principles of Phonology, 1939:51f