A crime is defined as an intentional conduct that is against the law at the moment. Punishment is a legally sanctioned penalty for a crime inflicted on someone guilty of the said crime. Fear of crime is vested in the innate fear that crime will damage and harm individuals, society, and humankind p20. It is vested in the idea that if unchecked, early signs of a disorder could deteriorate into crime and eventually break down the whole community neighborhood. It is attributed to a broken window in a building with a propensity to invite evildoers (p 20). The fear of crime underpins the belief that, if left unchecked, early indicators of disorder might lead to criminality and, finally, neighborhood community disintegration. Wilson and Keeling (1982) contend that “if a window in a structure is smashed and left unrepaired… it acts as an invitation to evildoers,” which leads to other windows being broken and, eventually, a fire if left unattended.
On the other hand, fear of crime is seen as the platform that paves the way for crime management. Also, it can lead to instability because people are cautious of becoming the next victims. The result is poorer social integration, out-migration, activity limits, increased security expenses, and avoidance behavior p 20. Based on Wilson and Keeling’s (1982) ‘broken window’ argument, they argue that police should be given jurisdiction over those who may shatter more windows, resulting in more arrests, court cases, and incarceration. In a vicious spiral, society grows even more fearful as crime rates rise, and as a result, a city’s administration is frequently assessed by its crime rate. Focusing on crime data may increase fear of crime and socially construct our notions about dealing with offenders.
Some politicians seize on these popular feelings and promote the “cure” of a stronger criminal justice system. People debate how they are supposed to ‘teach’ others about a crime, and the authorities should restrict the behavior about the implication of certain acts. Because the greater the media attention, the stronger the public response while also increasing the sensitive the topic becomes (p21). If a government fails to solve such concerns to the people’s satisfaction, it may be accused of ineptitude. People will criticize the government for failing to protect them and want reform. As a result, any government is likely to be cautious regarding crime fear. Debates on this subject regularly emerge in sociology and criminology journals because no academic — and no responsible government — underestimates the influence of crime fear on governance opinions (p21). In order to reduce the fear of crime, it is vital to understand why criminals commit crimes. To cure a sickness, researchers must first determine what is causing it and then choose an effective therapy.
The current study on crime is based on criminology as being hard science and underpinning if the ’cause’ is not necessary for the commission of a crime. In this regard, the implication is that some other phenomena can be attributed to human behavior. It implies that criminologists will be based on previous experiments that are succinct as science works. Historically, theological holdings were predominant, holding that the Devil is the cause of every crime P 35. Later research was of the idea that different brain shapes and particular physiques were the determinants of who the criminal types were. Examples of such physique include the tendency to be tattooed, poor ego control, genetic deficiency, and extravert tattoo were taken into consideration.
Some researchers believe that criminology is a hard science paradigm, meaning they can test by scientific method in a laboratory p 36. Therefore criminology as a science has its basis from 300 years ago, whereby the political, economic, social, and demographic changes began in Europe, leading to the development of the science of statistics which bore criminology. Cesare Lombroso believed that Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection was also applicable in the study of criminal behavior P 36. Lombroso held that criminals’ physical traits differed from non-criminals because they were at an early stage of human evolution like the apes, and their behavior reflected so p36. The theory of atavism was thus developed, which meant reverting to a primitive state. Which meant Lombroso believed that those who had enormous jaws, high cheekbones, and other apelike physical attributes were deemed to be prone to do evil. He also believed that there are small evolutionary drawbacks in every population, which would be befitting to a primitive society 37). As such, he opined that they would not die through natural selection and would be fertile in urban slums producing many children who would likely be criminals. It was also Lombroso’s view that people who are epileptic and insane would depict criminal traits and were atavistic and social factors played a part. Generally, it was a ravatization of an absolute concept.
Phrenology, the study of skulls, was also part of scientific study in the united states on both ling and dead prisoners. The research was possible because the scientific investigation was not limited to the ’causes’ of crime but also included the comparative efficiency of various types of jail regimes, as Fink (1938) pinpoints (p38). There was a period of categorizing the body into endomorphs, Mesomorphs, and Ectomorphs. Criminals were considered to belong mostly to a certain body type, but in the long run, the process is inefficient and purely expensive to determine. The reason is that the relationship between body type and personality is hard to determine. Also, the existing difference in gender and culture poses the delimiting factor to its truth39.
Chromosome abnormality has been studied in the recent past, and it is true that, to one extent, males have high delinquency levels. Studies show that an additional Y chromosome makes males exceptionally tall and odd-looking. Therefore there is delinquency in a portion and not all criminals. Also, in the past, it has been proven that those with these characteristics do not become criminals, and those without do become criminals.
In viewing criminology as hard science, it is clear that genetics contributes to the study of crime, and the contribution was most perceived to determine by the late 20th century. Most criminologists now believe that crime explanation is vested in interaction among biological, environmental, psychological, and sociological variables, which culminates in creating the criminogenic type (p39). There are no solid comprehensions at the moment because criminology is yet to have a succinct scientific reliance, as was the case with Newton, Darwin, Einstein, or Kao Kuen (p39).
Neurocriminology touches on the use of DNA and neurological and biological factors to explain crime and deviance (p40). A good example is a neuropsychology, which combines biological, neurological, and psychological aspects to reshape what is known about human behavior p 40. Continuing advances in technical knowledge produce potentially useful tools for detecting, identifying, and managing criminals (p40).
Due to the boom in technology, criminal behaviors have changed and are sometimes perceived as an abnormal behavior that a reason is not likely to show. Neurological inheritance has been attributed to some of the increasing criminal acts. Clearly, a criminal’s autonomous nervous system is less sensitive to outside stimuli. Criminals find it harder to learn how to control aggression pr antisocial behavior than it can normally be done.
Raine (2011) aimed to link criminal, psychopathic, and violent behavior to physical brain traits. His study suggests that criminal offenders, who are psychopaths (typically connected with serial killings), lack fear, regret, and guilt and that brain evidence of this may be detected early in life p40. Adult psychopaths, he claims, have an amygdala (an almond-shaped group of neurons deep in the brain’s medial temporal lobe) that is 18% smaller than normal controls. More evidence suggests that testosterone directly impacts people’s behavior, like sexual urges, proneness to violence, and impulsivity. In this regard, it is clear that there might be a link between crime and brain characteristics.
Neuroscience, a paradigm in criminology, gives insight into how the brain functions implicating the comprehension of antisocial behavior being defined as ‘criminal’ p41.
As such, the criminal justice policy must be changed to keep up with the latest knowledge of why people commit crimes. It is essential to know that succumbing to public interest does not outweigh the leeway to administer a less severe verdict based on science for the best interest of the general populace.
Conclusively, it is clear that criminology is a laboratory of science. The holding can be the basis to determine how crime is defined because it is a paradigm. A paradigm is a framework within which we collect our ideas and make them consistent and coherent: the conflict might be between a scientific and a sociological (or psychological) paradigm. The main reason is that Lombroso was influenced by Darwin and felt that criminals were atavistic and that their numbers would grow in the slums, but he eventually changed his mind. Chromosome abnormality (XYY) was Prominent in the mid-twentieth century but only important in a small percentage of instances and is now statistically unreliable. However, the close examination of rigorous studies of body forms from the mid-20th century is still warranted. Nonetheless, criminologists are far more ready now than in the 1960s and 1970s to recognize that some genetic basis may combine with certain social or environmental variables to raise the risk of someone committing a criminal act considerably.
Works Cited
LEM A305. Unit 1. Nature of Criminology. Major Issues in Criminology and penology. 2022.
Critical Analysis Of “Apollo” Short Story By Chimamanda Adichie Writing Sample
Few people would expect a 12-year-old child to comprehend what it means to be poor. However, just because someone is a minor does not mean they cannot have an impact on how that person’s life is changed, for better or worse. Young Okenwa, an essential character in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s “Apollo,” is a perfect example. Apollo narrates a tale from the viewpoint of Okenwa, a Nigerian adult who, after visiting his parents, is brought back to his first love. Okenwa’s parents inform him of the difficulties Raphael, their former houseboy and friend, faces as the leader of a gangster ring (Adichie 2). Okenwa falls into a depression of sorrow and guilt just at the mention of Raphael’s name. Even though it is a short story, Adichie retells a childhood memory from an adult perspective, showing the force of maturation and how one person’s lack of awareness can affect many lives.
Okenwa’s first-person viewpoint is used throughout the short narrative by the author to explore the complicated emotional effects of Okenwa’s lonely upbringing. During trips to his parents’ “small furnished flat,” Okenwa has developed the ability to distance himself from them in the present narrative (Adichie 1). Okenwa spends those afternoons with his parents “submerged in the foggy lull of their storytelling” (Adichie 2). He does not anticipate that their stories will be realistic or have any bearing on or significance for his life. Okenwa is therefore shocked into “the sharp awakening of memory” when his mother brings up Raphael’s name in connection to a tale of a recent spate of “armed robberies all over the east” (Adichie 2). His first-person narration lets the narrator suddenly detour into his past while still carrying the reader along.
The setting of the short story “Apollo” is quietly present throughout the entire narrative. The excellent author expertly described the incidents to maintain interest while escalating the tension. The protagonist, Okenwa, gives an early indication of how he relates to his parents. The narrative is set in Enugu, where Okenwa’s family resides in a modest but excessively equipped apartment. When Okenwa visits them infrequently, his parents relate strange tales that alter their perspective of him.”Fifteen years earlier, my parents would have scoffed at these stories”. As a result of Raphael’s tale of a previous houseboy, Okenwa is compelled to recall his early years.
The central theme of this story is guilt. Okenwa, the protagonist, is guilty of lying to his parents about slipping down the stairs, which is wrong. Furthermore, Raphael, their houseboy, was disgraced by Okenwa’s parents because of this secret. The way Raphael’s life ultimately unfolded may also be related to this. After robbing, Raphael and his group were saved by the police from mob injustice. Lingering guilt is a recurring theme in the novel as Okenwa frequently visits his parents because he does not have a family of his own.
Various symbols advance the plot and make the story more vivid. Childhood is symbolized by the supernatural stories Okenwa’s parents narrate in the fictional present. Okenwa observes his parents’ reversion to childlike behavior as an adult. Their earlier obsession with reason has been replaced with a fascination with tales characterized by magical qualities. Their altered ways of speaking and perceiving serve as visual cues for the reversal of roles. Okenwa transforms into the adult they once were while his parents change to the child Okenwas was formerly. At the beginning of the narrative, Okenwa talks about his bimonthly visit with his parents and how he has seen significant changes in them as they have aged. They have developed a greater interest in magical and supernatural stories rather than concentrating on science, books, and logic. Okenwa entertains his parents with an almost dismissive tone, although he cannot understand this evolution. This statement reflects how Okenwa’s parents treated him as a child when he played imaginative games and examines the role reversal between them.
The psychoanalytic approach employs several techniques to account for the causes of fear and anxiety in people. It may require patience and a long time to find the root of the problem successfully. The psychoanalysis approach bases its belief on the concept that all humans have deep, unconscious desires, memories, thoughts, and unconscious beliefs that can be seen in their personalities. Okenwa’s rigorous upbringing throughout the novel enhances his reclusive personality, enabling him to separate from the world shaped by his upbringing. He says, “I did not care for books. I sensed my parents’ disappointment…when I spoke about a book…I found badminton boring…” Okenwa is shown at the start of the story as trying to win over his parents because they continuously express their disdain. Okenwa then started reading books and participating in sports he disliked as a way to fight this. He did care deeply about one thing, though, and that was kung fu. Kung fu represents Okenwa’s escape from reality and what he loves. For Okenwa, hearing the word “kung fu” makes him feel liberated. On the surface, Okenwa appeared to be the affluent, disciplined son of a wealthy Nigerian family. However, Okenwa enjoys pursuing a pastime in his spare time to unwind from the stresses of his daily life. The author uses Okenwa’s escape from solitude to establish a foundation for her future connection with Raphael, the family’s houseboy, filled with the emotional absence of space created by Okenwa’s parents.
Raphael’s and Okenwa’s misunderstandings of one another are also motivated by the mistreatment of Raphael. A reader of this story may regard the instances in which Okenwa caught conjunctivitis from Raphael as the pair’s most intense displays of affection; yet, doing so would necessitate ignoring the dramatic differences in how they were handled when ill. Okenwa’s parents go to the bother of getting eye drops for Raphael, but afterward, they keep him locked in his room and do not come back to check on him( Adichie 6). Raphael would not have recovered if Okenwa had not defied his parents’ wishes to give him the eye drops. They cared too much for Okenwa’s health to let him be left alone, so they did not restrict him from going outside, as Raphael did. Raphael, who is instead treated as filthy and undeserving of assistance, can imagine this kind of care. Raphael is constantly insulted by Okenwa’s mother, who also accuses him of infecting her son by questioning, “Why did you bring this thing to my house? Why?” (Adichie 8). Raphael is treated by her as if he intentionally intended to infect Apollo by conspiring with him to infect her child. Raphael observed that Okenwa never questions this treatment as being unfair. When he reminisces on his upbringing, Okenwa laments his reluctance to raise concerns to his mother over how she treats Raphael and his desire to be his friend in secret. These factors are likely what strained their connection.
Adichie’s use of an adult viewpoint and voice enables the story to delve much more profoundly than juvenile romantic storytelling about a child’s first relationship. This point of view helps demonstrate Okenwa’s growing maturity and the power of one person’s ignorance to transform lives. Okenwa’s earlier judgments differ from his current judgment. He is now aware of the profound social class and treatment disparities between him and Raphael. In these instances, Apollo emphasizes the significance of understanding one’s rights to keep others safe, a lesson everyone should learn and follow.
Works Cited
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi “’Apollo.”’ The New Yorker, The New Yorker,19 June 2017,
www, newyorker.com/magazine/2015/04/13/apollo
Critical Evaluation Of Discursive Methods And The Social Aspects Of Language Sample Essay
Psychology research presented in books is often dull, emphasising the technical procedures and not the people and ideas they aim to facilitate. The study is good at boring as they only encourage a repetition of techniques that have already been done and tested. These techniques do not provide an opportunity for encouraging critical and creative thinking to provide credible development of methods that can be applied to research challenges in psychology. The understanding technique is essential to build on the ideas presented for research. When it comes to social sciences, text-based qualitative research methodologies are used. Many science disciplines, from physics, chemistry and biology, can deal with their subject matter detached and in an objective way. However, social scientists have to recognise the complexity of human beings whose lives are guided by culture and express themselves through language and other signs and symbols with meaning to them. Text-based qualitative methods like discursive methods are insightful in providing meaning and interpretation.
Human beings are self-interpreting and how they act relates to how they view themselves and their world. How humans interpret themselves is based on what society has taught them; this opinion changes with time. It is, therefore, imperative to treat an individual as part and person of their social and cultural environment. Through social science, psychologists have recognised that meaning and subjectivity are the foundation of being human and what it means to exist in human society. Who a person is tied to who they perceive themselves to be and what others view them as (Stenner & Thirkettle). Every object in an individual’s environment, from a ball to a building, represents meaningful objects that others engage with us. Through this understanding, social scientists have developed qualitative interpretive methods to understand how human beings interpret and express themselves.
Social and cultural scientists conduct research through text-based methods to acquire knowledge from the participant’s perspective or a disclosure standpoint. These approaches require the researcher to step back and evaluate how the participant understands and contributes to constructing their reality on a particular subject (Stenner & Thirkettle). The aim is to assess understanding or construction on its own. Psychology sees human beings as creative in developing meaning, and the goal is to study how they come up with a purpose in the world through their everyday activities. In the 1960s, qualitative approaches were confided and reflected upon, enabling new techniques to grow.
Discourse means the language used or the language that is in and is the social action. It refers to the language used in everyday interaction between social actors in real-life communication, conversations and encounters. Discourse means language taking action in actual social practices. Discourse has two main functions (Stenner & Thirkettle). One is the outward language which involves communication with others. Second is the inwards language communication with self. Communication with the self allows humans to understand the different experiences they encounter, refine their thought, develop imaginative dreams regarding their future and comprehend their memories. Discourse is a powerful tool that merges the outward (social) life with the inward (psychological) life. Looking at the social aspect, it is clear that the functions and structures created in society cannot operate without language, a unique kind of social practice referred to as disclosure.
Human beings operate in social systems that they have organised. These systems are organised through institutions and practices like education, the economy, law and sciences that operate on discursive communication and, in a fundamental sense, are discursive communication (Davies & Horton-Salway). For instance, education is a form of discourse between teachers and students through talking, reading and writing. Without these streams to communicate, there would be no education. Therefore, a significant part of society is an ongoing system of discursive practices. Discursive is not just about writing or talking about society; discourse in society. Understanding language in discourse provides an inner understanding of psychological processes. Discourse offers the easiest way for people to express their private inner experiences. Discourse provides a unique language that allows inner feelings and thoughts to be expressed so that others understand. From an inward perspective, discourse serves to build, unbuild and rebuild how humans think about their identity and what they should do. Discourse is thus an invaluable tool in psychology that is core to understanding human beings.
Discourse and language are practical and social activities. Language is not a mere means of communication to pass a message from one person to another or to use to describe something. Discourse creates different versions of reality, serving other purposes and functions. According to discursive psychology, reality versions like identity are constructed through discourse (Davies & Horton-Salway). Identity represents how a person views, feels and thinks about themselves, plus how others view and talk about them. These links and understandings are formed in social contexts where interactions take place. The social contexts provide historical and cultural resources to understand and define identity unique to each society. People do not invent their theories of identity to understand and describe themselves. Instead, they rely on the discursive resources available to them in their culture and society. Discursive methods, therefore, provide an understanding of the social aspects of language, like forming identity.
Discourse provides an exciting understanding of the social aspects of language in terms of construction, variation and function. Different versions of reality, like identity, are constructed through discourse. It also constructs different versions of reality, providing variability and allowing construction to be fluid and not fixed; thus, aspects like identity can change (Davies & Horton-Salway). It also serves a specific function as language is understood differently in different societies and often touches on the aspect of power and social inequality. On a micro level, research on disclosure focus on ethnomethodology and conversation analysis. They study how identity is constructed and negotiated through conversation in local interactions. A micro approach, on the other hand, goes further to privilege the participant in further according to the exchange. Categories like a mother, a single mother, and a single mother with a child with ADHD are hierarchical in how they relate to each other. Discourse provides for how language is understood in different societies. Mental illness, for instance, in religious discourse, can be viewed as evil spirits, in psychological discourse as a poor maternal attachment, in moral discourse as a failure of morality and in biomedical disclosure as a biochemical imbalance.
Discourse has proved beneficial in understanding the social aspects of language but is still limited. Instead of reasoning and understanding based on natural social systems, social scientists have questioned the role of reasons in social conduct (Stenner & Thirkettle). Social actions and thought processes can be institutionalised and habitual, but they are not instinctual, and human beings can have different reasoning and value preference from what society dictates. In addition, discourse theories are focused on providing general explanatory ideas that are limited, as human conduct is not always the same. Generality can only be experienced in particular cases, and even then, patterns do not apply to all individuals in every case and in the same way. Additionally, empiricism is inadequate as it cannot be measured limited to a theocratical evaluation of facts. Discursive methods are therefore limited in providing an adequate understanding of human beings, society and language.
In conclusion, discursive methods provide an illuminating understanding of the social aspects of language. When language is defined in school, it is often taught to be a means of communicating to pass information or a message. Discourse, however, elaborates that language is not only a medium used by society but also represents society itself. Language is at the core of social institutions regarding what there are, what purpose they serve and who they do. Discourse is unique to each society and forms the basis for their unique institutions, from religious and political to economic ones. It goes further from the external aspect to influence the internal aspect, where an individual learns and understands who they are based on the language and meaning in their society. Discursive methods are by social scientists used to understand how societies construct realities, the variations the functions the built facts serve. However, despite the strengths and beneficial insight that discursive theories provide, they are still challenged with a few weaknesses. Discursive methods are also limited as they do not factor in reasoning and independent thinking. They do not factor in unique experiences, try to generalise individuals to draw patterns, and do not have an empirically testable evaluation standard. Regardless, discursive psychology remains an exciting approach to understanding the social aspects of language.
References
Stenner, P. & Thirkettle, M. Introduction: Critical, Creative and Credible.
Davies, A. & Horton-Salway, M. Why Focus on Discourse? Discursive Psychology and Identity.