Introduction
In modern sociology, motherhood refers to the social structures, experiences, and expectations associated with childbearing and being a mother. At the same time, this term differentiates becoming a mother as a biological fact and mothering as practices involved in childcare from cultural and public norms linked to these processes. In other words, motherhood may be regarded as a social institution that contributes to hierarchy in work and family and gender differentiation. Being an intrinsic part of society, the institution of motherhood has always been affected by it. Thus, the ideologies of motherhood are inseparable from and affected by ideologies and cultural values dominated in society changing along with general social norms and standards.
Concept of Motherhood
In the present day, according to some experts, motherhood is associated purely with a patriarchal social structure and is based on the general perception of a woman as a caregiver for whom being a mother is natural. Adrienne Rich differentiated the meaning of motherhood, addressing it as “the potential relationship of any woman to her powers of reproduction and to children, and the institution—which aims at ensuring that that potential—and all women—shall remain under male control” (Jiao, 2019, p. 541). That is why there are several studies dedicated to motherhood divided into four categories or themes of inquiry – motherhood as experience, motherhood as an institution, motherhood as subjectivity or identity, and motherhood as an agency.
In the first category, scholars investigate the work made by women as mothers. In the second, they address the laws, policies, images, and ideologies of patriarchal motherhood. The category of motherhood as subjectivity or identity examines how women feel and see themselves being affected by the experience of mothering and the institution of motherhood (Jiao, 2019). Finally, a fourth category discusses how mothering is connected with political activism and women’s empowerment. It promotes mothering as a powerful, socially engaged enterprise that enables to cause cultural change locally and across the globe through social activism and feminist child-rearing. In general, sociologists are highly interested in various perceptions of motherhood by different cultures, how ideas about motherhood are affected by and reflected in mass media and change over time, and how the ideologies of motherhood vary by socioeconomic class, race, and religion.
Patriarchal Ideology
Throughout human history, motherhood was predominantly regarded as the woman’s inherited profession, basic mission, and her nature’s inseparable part. Thus, women were supposedly “drawn into motherhood by their inner instincts which at the same time guarantee their children’s healthy growth and development” (Leskošek, 2011, p. 207). Motherhood was equal to femininity as the most natural profession for women in the family where heterosexual relations could not be concealed or avoided. According to the Catholic institution of marriage, women were regarded as the heart and had to be protected by men from dangers outside the home, unable to survive on their own.
However, this protection had negative effects – women were controlled by their husbands, and they were regarded as physically, emotionally, and intellectually inferior. In addition, a woman was regarded as means of reproduction – thus, her reproduction system was controlled by her husband. Based on the patriarchal mental pattern, these relations were correct as they “symbolized the continuation of the lineage and the mankind as a whole” as all individual characteristics were believed to be passed down from the father to the son (Leskošek, 2011, p. 208). As a result, any sexual intercourse with other men was strictly prohibited.
In the patriarchal society based on the Catholic religion, motherhood was opposite to women’s sexuality. Pregnancy indicated women’s primitive nature, and as women were regarded as unable to control their instincts, men were responsible for the cultivation of women’s appropriate behavior. It was believed that women with strong sexual drives could not be good mothers. At the same time, a seeming failure to control sexual desire was completely a woman’s guilt. That is why single motherhood, as a sign that a woman could not control her sexuality being unmarried, was strongly marginalized and severely punished.
Modern Ideology
In general, it is possible to say that the modern ideology of motherhood has changed significantly, however, it still includes multiple elements of the patriarchal pattern. At the same time, as a modern society, especially of developed countries, may be characterized by a relatively high level of freedom for people and the availability of social rights, motherhood began to be perceived more openly. In other words, there are no strict limitations for mothers in relation to their duties as women’s roles in society have changed, and a lot of role models have appeared. In general, it is possible to identify several common tendencies in the modern ideology of motherhood.
First of all, since the 1980s, due to the feminist movement, women have stopped associating themselves only with the family and children (Erşen, 2016). At the present day, they receive high education, want to make a career, and work and sometimes earn more than men. They either fight against patriarchal values, especially in private life, or embrace them to be involved and act successfully in the business world. However, these behaviors are determined by the necessity to be competitive and survive, and in modern society, the roles and behavioral patterns of men have changed as well. In other words, a woman is no longer protected by the institution of marriage that initially prescribed men the total responsibility for their families’ financial well-being.
As a result, three main tendencies have appeared – women do not want to become mothers, women perceived motherhood in a different way combining the career with childcare, and women embracing and promoting motherhood using mass media. In the first case, motherhood is not regarded as a woman’s natural profession based on instincts anymore. Therefore, women have received a right to choose, and some of them prefer not to have children at all for multiple different reasons. In the second case, women believe that it is possible to combine work and motherhood. Their assumptions are traditionally supported by the changes in gender roles when husbands and wives commonly share family duties. At the same time, there is a belief that still exists in society when “women are repeatedly reminded of that the only possible way to realize themselves and gain their subject status is to be mother” (Erşen, 2016, p. 376). As a result, motherhood, pregnancy, and the concept of “an ideal mother” are actively promoted through mass media. At the same time, intensive mothering ideologies and the pressure to be a perfect mother have a highly negative impact on women’s mental well-being (Henderson, Harmon and Newman, 2016).
Conclusion
Having several categories, motherhood refers to the social expectations, structures, and experiences connected with childcare and being a mother. It is regarded as a social institution, experience, subjectivity, and agency. In general, it is impossible to divide motherhood from ideologies that exist in society. As social norms, standards, and patterns change over the course of time, the perception of motherhood change along with them as well.
References
Erşen, U. B. (2016) ‘Changing face of motherhood ideology’, Sociology and Anthropology, 4(5), pp. 374-379. Web.
Henderson, A., Harmon, S. and Newman, H. (2016) ‘The price mothers pay, even when they are not buying it: mental health consequences of idealized motherhood,’ Sex Roles, 74, pp. 512-526. Web.
Jiao, M. (2019) ‘Mothering and motherhood: experience, ideology, and agency’, Comparative Literature Studies, 56(3), pp. 541-556. Web.
Leskošek, V. (2011) ‘Historical perspective on the ideologies of motherhood and its impact on social work’, Social Work & Society, 9(2), pp. 206-215.
The Poem “My Son, My Executioner” By Donald Hall
The cardinally new style of the expressed idea is presented in the poem My Son, My Executioner by Donald Hall. The poem presents the point of view of the parent, for whom the born child is the executioner. The very origin of the idea is emphasized by the short size of the poem, which, however, makes it possible to convey the meaning to the reader in just a few quatrains.
The theory of new criticism is based on an in-depth analysis of the details of the work. Such details may include emotionally-powered words, vocabulary, atmosphere, and other aspects of an artwork (Di Leo, 2020). Mostly, the theory of new criticism is projected onto poems. A poem for analysis is My Son, My Executioner by Donald Hall.
Figurative expressions are powerful language tools used in a poem. Hall cites symbolisms such as that the parent says that his son will become his executioner, which is a figurative expression since in reality, the son will not execute him but will play a role in his approaching death. The figurative meaning is used for the purpose of the creation of contrasting metaphors. This adds tension to the poem and grabs the interest of the readers.
Moreover, the author also uses a wide variety of words rarely found in everyday life in combination, such as “instrument of immortality,” which give a deeper meaning to the poem (Hall, 1973). Thus, Hall’s version of diction lends more emotion to the poem by drawing attention to minimal details through phrases and word combinations. Special use of words aims to create an atmosphere in the poem and transmit it to the reader.
An additional advantage of the poem is that the author uses a realistic scenario as having a baby has a significant impact on parents in real life. The poem’s realism allows the reader to project events onto his own life and to form opinions and attitudes. The philosophical theme of the extinction of the life of parents from the birth of a new life is raised. The poem clearly expresses the scenario according to which a parent sees death approaching in his child, but at the same time treats him with trepidation and love (Hall, 1973). This is again the contrast that Hall uses to give a greater semantic load to the poem. The contrasting approach emphasizes several aspects at once, such as the unconditional love of the parent, generational turnover, and limited life span. Thus, for some readers, the meaning will be revealed only with the next reading and will also provide an opportunity to look for additional hidden meanings in the lines.
The use of the executioner metaphor in relation to a child is non-standard. Usually, the birth of a child is associated and identified with a new life. In this case, the emphasis is on the death theme. This unconventional decision to consider the birth of a child from a different angle draws additional attention to the essence of the poem. Therefore, the author effectively conveys the idea of the poem, and it is possible to interpret and ponder the meaning from different angles.
The personification of impending death in a child also offers several perspectives to consider. First, the idea of a child as an executioner has negative connotations. At the same time, it is clear that the parent has a positive attitude towards the child, which can be considered from the point of view of a positive attitude towards his own impending death and acceptance of it. With the period of growing up of the son, the parent is getting closer to the end of the life. It is an uninterrupted and inevitable process of death with old age. This idea is given drama and philosophy in the article. Thus, the poem contains a deep meaning of several ideas at once.
With regard to the linguistic aspects of the poem, different styles are used in different lines. Alliteration is used with repetition of the letters “c” and “i” in lines five and six. The poem is short, but the writing style allows it to convey the main idea in a few lines. The uniform style of the language is not maintained throughout the poem; the author varies the style along with the change in the angle of consideration of the topic.
In addition, the meaning in the poem develops gradually. The first lines draw attention through their cardinal idea, and then the metamorphism of the expression about the son, who is the so-called executioner of the parent, is explained in detail. This allows the reader to be captivated through the expressions used and to draw attention to further developments. Starting with one idea and an exciting line about the role of the executioner for a child, Hall then keeps the dramatic theme but clarifies the imagery of this expression. The parent has a positive attitude towards the birth of a child, he is happy about this, but this is what led him to the idea of the limited lifetime.
The poem expresses feelings and sensations, both internal and physical. Their complex combination allows immersing readers in the atmosphere. Parents who previously considered themselves immortal begin to realize the transience and extinction of their own life. They understand that with the development of their child, the opposite process occurs in their life. At the same time, from the poem, the author’s bias is noticeable in considering this idea precisely from the point of view of the approaching death. The entire poem is aimed at conveying this position. While looking from the other angle, the child’s life does not have a direct impact on the approach of the death of the parents. Therefore, the poem aims to convey the idea of awareness of the limitations of the period of life rather than being objective and truly realistic.
The poem brings the parallels between the life of the child and the parents. It is said that at twenty-two and twenty-five years old, the parents believed that their life would last forever (Hall, 1973). This emphasizes another important idea of the poem, which is that nothing lasts forever, and even those who imagine immortality sooner or later come to the idea that their life is beginning to fade away and is approaching its logical conclusion. At the same time, the child’s life is just beginning, and he only has to go through this turning point of age.
In conclusion, Hall uses figurative language, diction and vocabulary effectively to convey meaning to the reader. In three quatrains, he successfully conveyed several philosophic ideas at once. The author uses a style of description in which the reader is enticed from the very beginning due to a non-standard title.
References
Di Leo, Jeffrey R. “The New New Criticism: Antitheory, Autonomy, and the Literary Text from Object-Oriented Ontology to Postcritique.” The Comparatist, vol. 44, no. 1, 2020. Web.
Hall, Donald. My Son, My Executioner, 1973.
The Future Of The Meat Industry
People continue developing various opinions about the future of the meat industry. The controversies are based on personal attitudes towards the topic and business knowledge. Despite the possibility to provide people with enough working placing, feeding opportunities, and economic stability, such concerns as animal rights, pollution issues, and alternative methods cannot be ignored. As a result, new alternatives emerge, proving the promotion of the plant-based food market that could reach about $74.2 billion by 2027, questioning the progress of the meat industry in the United States (Strickler, 2021). However, the global demand for meat is growing because people cannot stop eating meat products. Regarding recent technological advancement and research, the debates about the use of beef are critical, with many for and against positions. Today, the meat industry’s future is challenged by environmental damage, plant-based alternatives, and unstable price policing, but its nutritional worth attracts people and supports its expansion.
Reference
FutureLearn. (2021). Is eating meat bad for the environment? Future Learn. Web.
Strickler, J. (2021). Alternative meats bringing uncertain future for cattle farmers. Forbes. Web.