Introduction
Environmental issues in most cases arise from activities in the natural environment by human beings. These human activities are also referred to as anthropogenic a Greek word that means man-made. They are the wastes that are produced as by-products in the process of practicing helpful human activities. Those wastes are either in chemical form or in biological form (Laura 185). They are usually in various forms which include; in the agricultural sector such as intensive farming and overgrazing among others, industries such as the release of harmful gasses, mining, and construction which involves deforestation in the process to obtain materials and space among others. They are very many environmental issues and have varied effects on the environment as well as on the human beings living in the natural environment. This essay will focus on intensive farming as an environmental issue.
Intensive Farming
Intensive farming is the opposite of sustainable agriculture which emphasizes minimal use of inputs such as machinery, agricultural chemicals, and labor with the aim of ecological health. Intensive farming as an issue involves factors such as overgrazing, inappropriate methods during the preparation of land for farming for example slashing of bushes and burning the land as it destroys the microorganisms as well as the nutrients. Mono-cropping for a long time overuses some nutrients and kills the rest, irrigation although seems to be helpful, nutrients are eroded and also they sink in deep soils where the roots cannot reach (Laura 195). The use of chemicals on the land destroys it in the long run and finally, there is also an effect on the environment in the process of meat production.
How It Evolved
With globalization, new technologies have come up to maximize production. This has been both an advantage and a disadvantage. In crop farming, intensive farming is caused by overuse of machines in the preparation of land and throughout the crop growing period, chemicals aimed at increasing production through add of nutrients and elimination of pesticides and other unwanted organisms, and excess use of irrigation (Stokstad and Gretchen 543). This method although looked at as a way of increasing productivity, it has been discovered that they are short-lived and also have many other harmful effects on the natural environment such as increasing the rate of erosion due to over-cultivation, water that goes back to the rivers is already poisoned, and waterlogging sometimes happens.
In animal farming, intensive cultivation means having so many animals on a small or limited piece of land. A large number would require food and the other requirements among them are a space for relaxation and to move about (Goldman 267). In modern times especially in places like the USA, this form of animal farming is highly practiced as referred to as factory farming. Animal welfare is neglected and their output is a low level of quality products.
Benefits of Intensive Farming
Intensive farming has some advantages which include; increased production per the individual output, land output, and financially more income is received. Secondly, due to high productivity, food becomes available hence the food prices go down which benefits those specializing in other areas (Crutzen and Stoermer 18). Since only a small piece of land is utilized, a lot of land is preserved for ecosystems such as forests. Livestock is raised in the limited area helps in capturing methane gas which is produced in the wastes of animals which is then used to produce energy hence preservation of overexploitation of other areas like the fossils which are used in the production of oil.
Negative Effects of Intensive Farming
On the other hand, there are many disadvantages of intensive cultivation which include; destruction of homes for wild organisms, the chemicals that are poured into the rivers changing the natural trends in the water bodies which is supported by the new trend in the Gulf of Mexico causing hypoxic condition it is in. also the chemicals in the farms are said to kill some of the important living things in the soil which help in aeration of the soil. If there is no control taken, then it will lead to desertification due to the poisoning of land. People who work on the farms also have health issues attributed to exposure to the chemicals (Jasmit 1). Some farm products also store some of these chemicals which are not healthy for human and animal consumers. Overuse of mechanization and grazing too many animals on a limited piece of land leads to low production as a result of the soil losing texture hence improper aeration. It may also lead to soil erosion causing physical hazards due to gullies and removal of the top nutritious layer.
Political Ramifications
Intensive farming which has increased food production has led to several social, economic, and political factors and changes in policies. We have had the introduction of NAFTA and the EU which aid in the marketing of agricultural products (Yanitsky 163). This is more a case of political organization as it involves the signing of treaties between nations. There are however some environmentalists who have been criticizing this method of production. Their arguments are ignored by the government of the various nations due to the economic contribution they have at the moment. Overexploitation of forests and other agricultural areas is condemned but it is more of an illusion than a reality in the minds of many. Genetically modified crops have been encouraged by the government due to the short-term goals it solves, however, they have been causing more harm and destroying the natural breeding methods which ensured quality production other than quantity (Carin 1). Governments have failed in implementing policies that will preserve the natural environment due to political pressures within the nations and a lack of determination by most leaders.
Conclusion
With the trend, there is a risk in the future. If this is not controlled, the production of agricultural products is threatened which means that the world will suffer food shortage. Intensive farming is good though a lot of control measures should be employed. People should be educated on the farming methods that will increase productivity as long as human beings live by learning to preserve natural habitats and the natural composition of the soil.
Works Cited
Carin, Elizabeth.China’s Environmental Challenge: Political, Social and Economic Implications. 2003. Web.
Crutzen, Paul and Stoermer Eugene. “The ‘Anthropocene’” in International Geosphere- Biosphere Programme Newsletter 41 (2000): 17-18. Print.
Goldman, Marshall. Environmental Pollution in the Soviet Union: The Spoils of Progress. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992. Print.
Laura, Henry. “Two Paths to a Greener Future: Environmentalism and Civil Society Development in Russia.” Demokratizatsiya 10.2 (2002): 184 – 206. Print.
Jasmit Singh. “Our Roots on the North American Soil.” Monthly journal 4 (2002).
Stokstad, Erik and Gretchen Vogel. “AGRIBIOTECHNOLOGY:Mixed Message Could Prove Costly for GM.” Crops.science Journal 302.5645 (2003): 542 – 543. Print.
Yanitsky, Oleg. “The Environmental Movement in a Hostile Context: The Case of Russia.” International Sociology 14.2 (1999): 157 – 172. Print.
Immunity, Inflammation And Hypersensitivity
Inflammation and immunity
Inflammation is a mechanism through which the body system reacts to injury or infection. The features of inflammation include soreness, warmth, redness, and enlargement. Inflammation, therefore, is classified under nonspecific immune responses. On the other hand, immunity is the mechanism of resistance involving the immune system or all physiological mechanisms that endow the host with the capacity to recognize antigens and to neutralize, eliminate, or metabolize them without causing injury to their tissues (Stvrtinova and Hulin, 1995). It is, therefore, a state in which the body system has an effective defense system against the antigens which cause diseases. The immunity is divided into both nonspecific and specific immunity.
The nonspecific components can eliminate a broad range of pathogens irrespective of their antigenic specificity. Specific immunity generates pathogenic specific immunity against new diseases encountered by the body. The macrophages and leucocytes are exited from the blood circulation and migrate to the site of inflammation. The bone marrow produces recruits of phagocytes which engulfs the pathogens rendering them harmless before they are eliminated out of the body. The number of macrophage precursor cells is increased by the monocytes produced by the bone marrow (Stvrtinova and Hulin, 1995). The macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells are examples of antigen-presenting cells.
Inflammation isolates and destroys injurious agents in the preparation of tissue repair by cell division to replace lost cells in regenerative tissues like skin, while in non-regenerative ones like muscles. The lost cells are replaced by scar tissues and fibroblast produces protein collagen to refill these lost cells. Immunity involves the B-lymphocytes and the T-lymphocytes which are produced by the pluripotent stem cells. And their activation leads to the production of antibodies, while inflammation is the activation of the white blood cells to destroy the antigens causing infections. Immunity protects in the initial stages of the infection only while inflammation is the healing process through the activation of the white blood cells to clear the antigens causing infections and damage to the tissues. Inflammation is activated after the injury while immunity is before any injury or any kind of damage to the tissues.
Haemopoiesis is the production of blood cellular components mainly leucocytes. The undifferentiated stem cells give rise to progenitors committed to either lymphoid or myeloid lineage pathways of differentiation. The lymphoid lineage pathway gives rise to thymus-derived (T-cells) and bone marrow-derived/Bursa of Fabricius-derived (B-cells). The myeloid lineage pathway generates mononuclear phagocytoses that are monocytes and macrophages and gives rise also to polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Myeloid stem cells also generate mast cells, erythrocytes, and platelets.
Hypersensitivity definition
Hypersensitivity is the extreme, detrimental reaction formed by the normal immune system. Hypersensitive reactions are mainly divided into four types: type i, type ii, type iii, and type iv. This is based on their mechanisms of action and the period of the reactions. These reactions can cause damage leading to the death of the host. Such immune responses may increase cell-mediated immunity (Hoskin, 2005). Humoral immune responses include types I to III, while type iv is classified under cell-mediated immune response.
Types of hypersensitivity
Type I hypersensitivity is called immediate or anaphylactic hypersensitivity. Here an allergen stimulates the production of the Th2 cells leading to the production of IgE by the plasma cells to mediate this reaction. Basophils and mast cell surfaces are bound by the receptors of the IgE, thus is believed to clear parasitic infections from the body. These responses take place at the mucous membranes and the reactions can be systematic or localized to a specific target. These reactions may involve skin, nasopharynx, and the eye (Stvrtinova and Hulin, 1995)
Type II hypersensitivity is commonly referred to as cytotoxic hypersensitivity (Stvrtinova and Hulin, 1995). This involves cell destruction by lysis, the complement is activated by the IgM or IgG through a process called phagocytosis. This involves the opsonization of the antigen by phagocytes leading to cell lysis. Examples of such reactions are hemolytic disease and transfusion reactions. Type III is immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity. This is dependent on the quantity and location of immune complexes (Hoskin, 2005). This takes place in the blood vessel walls in the kidney. Its effects are restricted near the site of antigen entry or systemic. The major cause of such reactions is incomplete clearance of immune complexes from the tissues by phagocytes leading to activation of the complement system (Hoskin, 2005). Some of the examples are serum sickness and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.
Type IV Delayed-type is commonly referred to as (cell-mediated) hypersensitivity (Stvrtinova and Hulin, 1995). This type of hypersensitivity involves two phases mainly: the effector and sensitization phases. In the sensitization phase, the dendritic cells and macrophages secrete interleukin 12 (IL-12) in lymph nodes to provoke the development of Th1 cells (Stvrtinova and Hulin, 1995). This later releases cytokine and chemokines to attract and activate macrophages. Activated macrophages elevate the oxygen radical, class II MHC molecules, nitric oxide, and tumor necrosis factor receptors. They defend intracellular pathogens but can cause allergens like contact dermatitis.
Reference
Hoskin, D. (2005). Hypersensitivity (Allergic) reactions. Web.
Stvrtinova, V. and Hulin, J. J. (1995). Inflammation and fever from pathophysiology Principles of disease. New York, NY: Macmillan Press.
Native American And African Religions
Religion has existed since antiquity. While different communities practiced different religions, they nonetheless have a common ground when it comes to the unity of the material and spiritual world. According to Toropov and Buckles, within the Native American spirituality, all processes whether human or non human (spiritual), are linked. Native American religion does not differentiate between natural and supernatural events (2004). Accordingly, Native American spirituality honors mother earth and the coexistence of life with nature and animals. It is for this reason that the Native Americans believe that spirits walk, coexist and interact with the humans rather than inhabit their own separate world. Native American and African religions teach that spirits walk on the earth openly interacting with humans. There are good and bad spirits; those that harm and those that protect including spirits that have taken human and/or animal appearances (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009).
Religious leaders are an integral part of both the African and the Native American religions. The priests serve the primal function of officiating over religious ceremonies and rituals. In other instances, they are used to commune with the spirit world. The priests, who are given different titles depending on the people, are often the intermediaries between the material world and the spirit world. One of the most famous religions practices by the native Americans was Shamanism (Shamanism, N.d.). Their religious leaders who are known as Shamans often slip into a state of altered consciousness by using hallucinogenic drugs so as to able to effectively communicate with the spirit world asking for divination and healing (Shamanism, N.d.).
For purposes of communicating with the spiritual world, it is expected that the person first slips into a state of altered consciousness. Trancing is an important of African and Native American religious rituals. This is achieved through the inhalation of certain vapors, rhythm chanting, inflicting self torture, meditation, drumming and dancing. Sometimes this practice is reserved for the religious leaders only for instance, the shamans in the Native American religions (Shamanism, N.d.). Through the dancing, chanting and the drug taking, the religious leaders are able to transform themselves. That said, while the Shaman or priest is in this trance-like state, their movements to the drumming become more animal like. They also make bizarre sounds and noises. These rituals are also involved in initiation rites. During the performance of such rituals it is imperative that costumes are worn. These costumes not only signify the sacred nature of the ritual but also depict the spiritual journeys (O’Neill, 2004).
Both African and Native American religions have different rituals that serve different purposes but primarily for communicating with the spirits (Smoley, 1999). For instance, the Native Americans, observe the Shamanic ritual called Goot involving an elaborate setting of food, music and dance. As is common with most Shamanic rituals, during the dancing the Shaman or the people performing the ritual may get into a trance like state with the help of hallucinogens. This ritual is used by the Shamanic religious followers for material/physical wishes purposes. In this case, the people would be asking the spirits for such things as physical health, longevity, male births and even physical wealth (Kim, 2000). In the African religions, after long periods of drought, the rain making ceremony was always organized. A special priest who had the title of rainmaker, slipped into trance like state so as to communicate with the spirits in a bid to explain the drought. after the cause of the drought had been established, the spirits then provided the rainmaker with a solution. It involved the offering of libations to the spirits that had caused the drought as away of appeasing them and seeking forgiveness for transgressions (Exploring Africa, N.d.).
Native American and African religions may be practiced in different parts of the world but they still share the aspect of a unified natural and spiritual world.
References
Hyde, D. (2007). Native American religion, a rainbow of spirituality. Web.
Indigenous African religions. (N.d.). Exploring Africa. Web.
Kim, A. (2000). Christianity, Shamanism and modernization in South Korea. Cross Currents.
O’Neill, D. (2004). Anthropology of religion. Web.
Native American and African Religions. (2009). Encyclopedia Britannica.
Shamanism. (N.d.). Web.
Smoley, R. (1999). The purpose of ritual. Ancient Wisdom. Web.
Toropov, B. & buckles, L. (2004). Complete idiots guide to world religions. New York: Alpha Books.