Many experiments have been conducted on the depth of processing and the self-reference effect. The Depth of Processing model suggests that the level at which information is encoded in memory depends on the type of processing used. This concept is connected to the self-reference effect, as individuals are believed to remember information better when they can personally relate to it. When individuals can establish a personal connection, they tend to store the information more deeply in their memory.
The depth of processing model was explored in a series of experiments conducted by Craik and Tulving. Participants were instructed to use different methods of processing to encode words at varying levels: shallow, moderate, and deep. For the shallow level, participants were asked questions about whether the word was written in capital letters. The moderate level involved questions about whether two words rhymed. Lastly, the deep level required participants to answer questions about words in sentences and their fit. After completing these tasks, participants were given a surprise recognition test that included target words (the ones they had just been asked questions about) and distraction words (words they had never seen before). The findings of the experiment revealed that people had better recall for words that had undergone deeper levels of processing (Craik and Tulving, 1975).
Despite some criticisms about the above experiment, Craik and Tulving conducted additional experiments to refine the D.O.P. model. Some believed that the structural tasks were easier and required less time, which meant participants did not spend as much time studying those words compared to the other tasks. To address this concern, Craik and Tulving made sure the structural task took an equal amount of time as the other tasks. The results remained consistent with previous experiments. Initially, Craik and Tulving started with five tasks but then narrowed it down to three to prevent a ceiling effect. Rogers later added the self-referent task to the model.
Palmere, Benton, Glover, and Ronning (1983) conducted a series of experiments to further explore the depth of processing model. The experiments involved paragraphs containing supported and standalone sentences. After reading the paragraphs, the subjects were tested on their recognition of the information presented. The results demonstrated that the subjects remembered more information from the sentences that were supported by other information, as compared to standalone sentences. This finding supports the depth of processing theory, as it suggests that people are more likely to remember information that requires deeper cognitive processing. When information is encoded at a deeper level, individuals have a higher likelihood of recalling it.
In a study conducted by Bower and Karlin in 1974, the depth of processing model in memory was examined. The researchers used slides containing pictures of college students extracted from yearbooks. Participants viewed these slides and were then asked questions. Subsequently, they were presented with another set of slides and tasked with determining whether or not the individuals shown had appeared in the original group. The results revealed that participants who provided more detailed responses about a person were more likely to remember that individual from the initial set of slides. Thus, this experiment provides support for the Depth of Processing model, which suggests that processing information at a deeper level can enhance memory.
Many experiments have been conducted on the depth of processing and the self reference effect. The Depth of Processing model suggests that the depth at which information is encoded in memory depends on the type of processing used. This is connected to the self reference effect, as it is believed that individuals are more likely to remember something if they can relate it to themselves. When people can personally connect to something, it becomes more firmly embedded in their memory.
Craik and Tulving conducted a series of experiments to test the depth of processing model. They asked participants questions about words at different levels: shallow, moderate, and deep. Specifically, participants were asked if words were written in capital letters (shallow level), if two words rhymed (moderate level), and if words fit in sentences (deep level). Afterward, participants were surprised with a recognition test that included both the previously questioned words (target words) and unseen words (distraction words). The findings revealed that people had better recall for words processed at a deeper level (Craik and Tulving 1975).
Despite criticisms, additional experiments were conducted by Craik and Tulving to refine the D.O.P. model. Initially, there were concerns that the structural tasks were easier and required less time for study compared to other tasks. To address this, the structural task was adjusted to match the duration of the other tasks. The results remained consistent with previous experiments. Furthermore, Craik and Tulving initially had five tasks but reduced it to three to avoid a ceiling effect. Additionally, Rogers later introduced the self-referent task to the model. Palmere, Benton, Glover, and Ronning (1983) carried out a series of experiments to further explore the depth of processing model. Their experiments involved paragraphs with supported and unsupported sentences. After reading the paragraphs, participants took a recognition test on the information within them. The findings revealed that participants remembered more information from supported sentences compared to those that stood alone. This finding aligns with the depth of processing theory, implying that people remember information that requires more thought and encoding at a deeper level due to its greater detail.People who are able to encode information at a deeper level are more likely to remember it.
Bower and Karlin (1974) conducted an experiment to test the Depth of Processing model on memory. Their focus was specifically on faces. They used college student pictures from yearbooks, which they transferred onto slides. The participants were shown these slides and then asked questions about them. Afterward, a series of slides were presented to them, and they had to determine whether each person in the slide had appeared in the original group. The results showed that when participants provided more detailed responses about a person, they were more likely to remember that individual from the original group. This finding supports the Depth of Processing model as it demonstrates that deeper processing can occur by incorporating more detailed information.
Case Study History Of Ebay
I. History Ebay became what it is today on September 4, 1995 when founder Pierre Omidyar sold a broken laser pointer for $13. 83. He previously worked for Microsoft but left to pursue his idea of online auctions. Headquartered in San Jose, California, the company started out under the name AuctionWeb and became known as Ebay in September 1997. Meg Whitman was appointed CEO of Ebay shortly after, and she has grown the company ever since. Online auctions are available as fixed-price, buy-it-now or as regular bidding.
Transactions are completed with the assistance of Pay Pal which was acquired by Ebay in 2002. Buyers and sellers can rely on the feedback posted as to whether or not the buyer/seller is reputable and trustworthy. The convenience of online shopping has grown with millions of different items, antiques, and products being sold. Sellers can have their own stores, websites, and marketplace to sell anything they desire. Over time, Ebay has acquired international auction websites and rebranded them with the Ebay logo. The company has also purchased Skype, Rent. com, Shopping. om, CARad. com, Half. com, and purchased 25% stake in craigslist. com. Ebay did experience an overall decline in August of 2006. Despite its promotional and advertising efforts, Ebay’s revenue growth was slowing. Google had taken the lead as the major internet company. Google was perfecting its very profitable online search and advertising model, and even talked of starting an online auction site similar to Ebay. Ebay and Yahoo formed a strategic alliance in 2006 to boost their position. The talk of a merger continues as business has increased once again for Ebay in 2007.
Since the textbook was written, Meg Whitman stepped down as CEO after 15 years on March 31, 2008. The sale of Skype was complete in late 2009 as the company stated it was a “poor fit” for its business; however Ebay still owns 30% of the company. It also acquired StubHub in 2007 and Bill Me Later in 2008. Ebay continues to be a successful company with world-wide recognition. II. Internal Environment A. Strengths 1. Ebay is the world’s largest online auction site. 2. The company focuses on being the “middle man” for transactions and obtains profits from both buyers and sellers.
Ebay offers additional services and tools for users to take advantage of. 3. Diversification is a huge part of Ebay. They have branched out globally and became the leader in online auctions in foreign markets. 4. The acquisition of PayPal along with so many other online sites. PayPal enables Ebay to control the payment system for online auctioning. B. Weaknesses 1. Growing business could affect IT infrastructure and cause website problems. 2. No search engine of its own to further promote its business. 3. Fraud and scamming in the online auctions and the ability to control this.
III. External Environment A. Opportunities 1. Acquisitions provide opportunities to further profits and offer buyers and sellers more options. 2. Market development into new and emerging markets such as China and India. 3. Buying into the social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook could prove to be very lucrative. 4. Forming an alliance with the postal service and/or shipping services could be very beneficial and offer savings to buyers and sellers. B. Threats 1. Google-the number one internet search and advertising company. 2.
Unscrupulous practices such as spam and viruses to users. 3. Auction fraud and scams that cannot be controlled in time. 4. Competition into the market because of their high profits. IV. SWOT Analysis After reviewing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of Ebay I find the following things to be suggested strategies: user-friendly website offering online tools, training and help; Ebay stores (B&M); online banking; alliance with postal/shipping services, security protocols, online product/item verification, and pro-active handling of fraud and scamming activities.
V. Corporate Level/Business Level Strategy Ebay has a corporate level strategy of obtaining and purchasing other businesses both online and B&M. Their investments into other online services have proven successful in the past and they continue to acquire many others. Their business level strategy proves to be top-notch with accurate billing, knowledgeable and talented staff, product innovation, brand name, and expertise in technology. VI. Structure and Control Systems The structure and control system of Ebay seems to be working well.
They have made history in the online auction business and continue to implement changes and bring forth innovative tools to help individuals on both sides of the transaction. They are far ahead in the game of mergers and understand the control they need to have in place when something is not a good fit for them, such as Skype which was sold in 2009. VII. Recommendations The first recommendation I would have for Ebay would be to form an alliance with the postal service and shipping services such as Fed Ex and UPS. The shipping of items to and from buyers worldwide is a huge part of the online auction world.
Other recommendations would be to focus on more brick and mortar stores, have online verification of products and items, offer user education, and aggressive quality control through peer review. Ebay also needs to continue to focus on finding and prohibiting fraud and scams on their websites. The ability to offer online banking could be a great opportunity to venture into. Ebay has the resources (capital) it needs to push out competition before they become a threat. That first broken laser light sold back in 1995 continues to be a mark in history as Ebay takes the world on.
Constitution Assignment
The U. S. Was founded for all creeds, beliefs, and opinions and we have the right to freely express those without governmental interference, and the First Amendment to the Constitution guarantees those rights. Can think of a recent example in the news where Louisiana Republican State Representative Valerie Hodges was supportive of a proposed government program to expand the availability of school vouchers to religious schools. That was until she realized that “religion” did not necessarily equate to “Christian”, and the program would provide funding to Muslim schools as well, and she quickly retracted her support or the bill.
This example demonstrates the need for this protection from those among us, especially our politicians, who would prefer that their beliefs be that of the government. At the time of the writing of the Second Amendment, the Militia was still seen as a necessity due to the small number of citizens available for a strong military. In 2010 the Supreme Court ruled that this right extends to citizens having the right to arm themselves for personal protection in their own home. The Third Amendment was more of a concern during the tumultuous evolutionary days, when soldiers would occupy private residences.
This seemingly does not apply to our own soldiers when they are in other countries, as our forces have occupied foreign residences in most of the wars we have been in. I assume the “manner to be prescribed by law” includes exceptions that explain these examples. Amendment IV limits the amount of police power over our personal lives as well as ensures our privacy in our homes. A guarantee of privacy against the government WOUld have eased the mind of many Americans at the time and has remained pertinent to this day.
The Fifth Amendment establishes the procedure for due process of law and how the government must treat those accused of a crime. It includes the right for those accused of a crime to not incriminate themselves. It also has the so-called “double jeopardy” clause that makes it so that the same person cannot be tried for the same crime more than once. And it makes it so that the accused does not have their property taken unless convicted. The rights of the accused are furthered by Amendment VI in requiring a jury trial and counsel for a fair defense.
Without this, most accused criminals cannot afford an attorney so they would likely not be treated fairly because of a lack of knowledge of the law. Money should not be required in order to stay out of jail, and this assures the public that, at least in theory. The Seventh Amendment assures that cases cannot be re-examined by another court and solidifies the right to a jury trial in certain civil cases. This is another good way that the Constitution ensures our basic freedoms. It seems there was still some controversy over the rights of the accused after the last few amendments.
Amendment VIII ensures that the government cannot hare a ridiculous amount for bail or fines. Also makes torture illegal – at least as defined by a judge. The Bill of Rights is a great collection of human rights, but just to be sure there was nothing left out this short Amendment IX says that the Constitution thus far does not specifically define everything that it is to be free. The principal of federalism is upheld with Amendment X, as it grants powers to the states that are not specifically identified or prohibited. The first Amendment to be adopted after the Bill of Rights, the eleventh defines he power of the U.
S. Courts in regards to the state power. This protects citizens from bringing lawsuits against those of other states or nations. The Twelfth Amendment changed the way that we choose the president and vice president. The vice president was actually voted for separately instead of being a running mate to the president. The Thirteenth Amendment was monumental as it put to end the worst part of American history – slavery. Getting to this point had a high cost of American lives during the Civil War but the resulting freeing of the slaves was worth it.
The Fourteenth Amendment cleared up any confusion regarding the status of former slaves to define them as citizens. This expanded the reach of the Constitution as it addressed the states. Further defining the rights of former slaves, the Fifteenth Amendment established the right for all citizens to vote. This did not, however, address the issue of women’s suffrage so still only males could vote. Taxing Americans incomes is a continued source of anger for many Americans, and it was the Sixteenth Amendment that enacted it. This increased federal revenue and allowed the national government to grow.
Prior to the Seventeenth Amendment, Senators were chosen by the state legislators, but this changed it to a position that was voted on by the people. Prohibition was the era brought on by the ratification of Amendment XVII at a time when America most needed a drink but found itself unable to due to a very irate temperance movement. The movement of the time gained enough momentum to pass this through Congress and is one of the most obvious mistakes in the Constitution. Am not sure how restricting a beverage that has been around for thousands of years could have done anybody any good.
The women’s suffrage movement finally attained their goal with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, granting voting rights to all Americans. Amendment Twenty moved the start dates for those elected to national office from March to January. This also specifies who will act as president in the event the president-elect dies or has not been chosen by the inauguration date. This was almost an issue in the 2000 election with the controversial Florida ballot recount. Prohibition is repealed! After thirteen dry years the government finally came to its senses and made it legal to produce and drink alcohol.
Prior to the Twenty-second Amendment two terms for a president was merely a tradition. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt broke this tradition when he ran for and won not three but four terms, but died shortly into his fourth. The decision by Congress to enact this Amendment after his death ensured that America would forever have a shifting figurehead. The people of Washington D. C. Were given the right to vote with Amendment XIII, but are still the only citizens who pay federal income taxes but are not represented in congress. Presumably, this is to give D. C. N impartial political stance since it is the seat of the federal government. The Twenty-fourth Amendment assures all eligible voters the right to vote without paying some form of tax first. Since it was passed in 1962 1 would think it was implemented in order to combat racist practices in some areas of the country. Given that President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, the Twenty- fifth Amendment was likely enacted to clear up any confusion that was present directly after that event. The vice president becomes president in the event of death or resignation.
This would have also been useful in 1974 when President Nixon resigned in disgrace. Amendment XVI lowered the voting age to 18. Apparently 18 years of age is old enough to vote for our leaders and fight our wars, but not buy alcohol. One of these does not seem right but I am not sure which. The last amendment makes it so that those members of Congress cannot give themselves a raise. They could, essentially, but would first have to win their next election to receive it. This must have been a difficult decision for Congress, as it took over two hundred years to ratify.