Introduction
Access to information is among the most important aspects of contemporary life. The popularity of portable devices capable of Internet connection has created a strong demand for network systems that provide fast and reliable data transfer. The following paper is a literature review on the evolution of network systems from 1G to 4G, focusing on key aspects of each generation.
Generation Definition
A generation of network systems refers to a fundamental change in the technology behind the concept that provides enhancements in performance, reliability, and scalability. Each generation is incompatible with its predecessors. For this reason, subsequent upgrades of existing technology are usually clustered under a single generation as its versions. It should also be understood that this loose definition was introduced relatively late in the course of evolution and has been applied retrospectively to the first generations.
1G
The first generation of network systems was developed in Japan in the late seventies and deployed in several European countries several years later. The main goal of the solution was to ensure the possibility to maintain the connection as the user moved from one location to the other. This was achieved by transferring calls from one entry point (referred to as a cell) to the other. The technology became commercially available in 1983, with the deployment of the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in the U.S., Israel, and Australia (Agrawal and Zeng 208). The system contained several major limitations.
First, the analog signal required a broad transmission spectrum in order to operate efficiently. Consequently, it required a large frequency gap between users to decrease interference. Second, it supported one user per channel, severely limiting its usage. Third, it was prohibitively expensive and energy-consuming. Finally, it contained several security flaws – specifically, the data was not encrypted and could be intercepted relatively easily. Despite these issues, 1G has introduced several important aspects of network systems. For instance, it relied on base stations for providing coverage, with different frequencies used by neighboring cells to avoid interference, and used automated means of coordination to ensure a seamless connection.
2G
The second generation was introduced in the early nineties through two competing technologies, GSM and CDMA. Two main aspects signified the fundamental change required for the system to qualify as 2G. First, the analog AMPS system was superseded by its digital counterpart, D-AMPS. Second, the addition of an out-of-band channel ensured faster phone-to-network signaling (Penttinen 277).
The switch to a digital format provided several crucial advantages for the technology. First, it allowed using digital encryption, which significantly improved the safety and security of the data. Second, it optimized the use of the frequency spectrum, ensuring greater penetration levels. Third, it broadened the scope of data transferring by introducing text messaging through short messaging service (SMS). The latter was especially important since it can be argued that the diversity of data has remained the defining feature of mobile networking in the modern setting.
Unlike its predecessor, 2G saw several major upgrades. The first one, commonly referred to as 2.5G, was General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). The technology was based on GSM service, with the respective upgrade of CDMA200 networks in Europe. The main difference of GPRS was the enhancement of the circuit-switched domain with a packet-switched one. This shift allowed charging users based on the volume of transferred data instead of time allocated for network usage. In addition to greater affordability, it allowed for a more efficient network usage by removing the restrictions on channel usage and permitting multiple users to transfer data via the same channel (Penttinen 372).
The second improvement, known as 2.75G, was the Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). The technology relied on advanced encryption and transmission mechanisms, known as 8PSK encoding, which permitted a threefold increase in the volume of data per symbol (Abdullah and Al-Hindawi 2). Importantly, EDGE was a backward-compatible technology, which allowed for a seamless implementation in GSM networks and, in some instances, D-AMPS generation. Due to its technological superiority, EDGE was eventually adopted for 3G standards. Overall, the switch to 2G contributed to its commercial availability and thus ensured mainstream adoption.
3G
The rising popularity of portable devices capable of network connectivity created strong demand for faster data transfer rates and greater scalability. Thus, a new generation of networks was developed. The packet switching principle was adopted from 2.5G in order to maintain the high transfer capacity of the carrier wave. Two main competitors were responsible for the establishment of a 3G standard. The first was Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), which decreased connection establishment time, enabled several devices to share a slot, and increased the maximum burst rate to 3.1 Mbit/s (Attar et al. 49).
The second was WCDMA, which relied on a GSM network and used a 5Mz carrier. The latter enjoyed greater adoption due to its capacity for high-speed, reliable network connection. Eventually, a number of improvements were developed and deployed under the umbrella term High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA). The upgraded version of the network system (sometimes referred to as 3.5G) uses the W-CDMA frequencies of 2100, 1900, 850, and 900 MHz, is backward-compatible with earlier 3G versions and offers significantly increased data transfer speed (14.4 Mbit/s in the uplink and 5.76 Mbit/s in the uplink) (Penttinen 884).
The next upgrade of HSPA, known as HSPA+ or 3.75G, increased the rate to 42.2 Mbit/s and 22 Mbit/s., respectively, with up to 168 Mbit/s possible in theory. The technologies responsible for the improvement include beamforming and multiple-input, multiple-output communications (MIMO). The former provides a stronger signal by focusing the beam in the direction of a user, whereas the latter uses several antennas for greater stability. The HSPA upgrades ensured compliance with consumer expectations and lowered hardware requirements, allowing for greater reliability and lower power consumption.
4G
The growing popularity of data-demanding services such as video and audio streaming, coupled with the growing popularity of smartphones, eventually rendered 3G insufficient for widespread use. In response, several technologies were proposed that offered up to a 10-fold increase in data transfer rate over 3G. Currently, 4G is in the early stage of implementation, with several competitors available in different regions.
The first candidate is WiMAX, an IEEE-based standard initially capable of 40 Mbit/s data rate, with the eventual improvement of up to 1 Gbit/s (Penttinen 897). WiMAX is also notable for its flexibility, being used either as a replacement or an enhancement of the networks of existing generations. This aspect of technology greatly enhances its suitability for developing countries. The second candidate is Long-Term Evolution (LTE), a standard based on GSM technology and incorporating many of its features, including HSPA.
Importantly, LTE was initially considered incompatible with the definition of 4G due to the use of legacy technologies but was eventually recognized as such for marketing reasons. Both technologies are still in the active stage of development and have not been deployed consistently on a global scale.
Conclusion
As can be seen, each of the generations has contributed to the evolution of the current state of mobile network technology. The current approach adopted by the researchers prioritizes increased capacity, reliability, and scalability, with additional focus on efficiency and accessibility. Considering the progress demonstrated by the pioneering projects in the field, it is possible to expect further improvements in the technological aspect of the systems and, by extension, a more even implementation on a global scale.
Works Cited
Abdullah, Osama Ali, and Asaad M. Jassim Al-Hindawi. “Analysis and Modeling of GSM/EDGE Mobile Communication System.” IOSR Journal of Engineering, vol. 4, no. 12, 2014, pp. 1-14.
Agrawal, Dharma Prakash, and Qing-An Zeng. Introduction to Wireless and Mobile Systems. 4th ed., Cengage learning, 2015.
Attar, Rashid, et al. “Evolution of CDMA2000 Cellular Networks: Multicarrier EV-DO.” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 44, no. 3, 2006, pp. 46-53.
Penttinen, Jyrki T. J., editor. The Telecommunications Handbook: Engineering Guidelines for Fixed, Mobile and Satellite Systems. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
Cardiac Condition: Myocardial Infarction
Specific Objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
- State modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors
- Describe the pathophysiology of myocardial infarction
- List the symptoms of myocardial infarction
- Describe the list of drugs that treat myocardial infarction
Lecture: Myocardial Infarction
Also called a heart attack, myocardial infarction is a cardiac disease that occurs due to the death of myocardial cells because of hypoxia (Frangogiannis, 2014). Hypoxia is secondary to the lack or insufficient supply of oxygenated blood to the heart muscle.
Risk Factors for Myocardial Infarction
Non-modifiable risk factors are those that an individual cannot manipulate to increase or reduce the probability of developing the disease. They comprise of increasing age, male gender, African American race, history of the disease in the family (Vakil et al., 2014). Conversely, modifiable risks are the behavioral lifestyle issues that individuals have the power to control in an attempt to prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases. They comprise of excessive consumption of alcohol, cigarette smoking, overweight and obesity, and physical inactivity (Vakil et al., 2014). Other risks include diseases such as diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure.
Pathophysiology
The heart muscle requires an adequate supply of oxygen through the uncompromised perfusion of the myocardium. However, the occurrence of hypoxia results in not only myocardial injury but also myocardial cell death (Frangogiannis, 2014). The pathogenesis begins from the coronary blood vessels. The vessels start to accumulate fats that fill the lumen. Also, calcium deposition narrows the lumen of blood vessels. Fröbert et al. (2013) explain that thrombosis, which is the clotting of blood, can result in the narrowing or blockage of the coronary artery. Sometimes, the blood vessels may undergo spasms, which disrupt the normal flow of blood resulting in an insufficient supply of oxygen to the myocardium (Frangogiannis, 2014). Irrespective of the cause of coronary artery blockage, cardiac cells that are distal to the blockage lack oxygen resulting in hypoxia (Frangogiannis, 2014). Finally, the cells undergo permanent death due to the lack of oxygen. Symptoms of the disease occur because of this pathological process.
Symptoms of Myocardial Infarction
The classic symptoms are chest pain and shortness of breath.
Other common symptoms include:
- Tightness in the chest
- Pain in the chest that radiates to the jaw, back, arms, and the neck (Frangogiannis, 2014)
- Sweating
- Nausea and vomiting
- Anxiety
- Dizziness
- Tachycardia
- Coughing
Classes of Drugs Treating Myocardial Infarction
Analgesics
Morphine sulfate is the analgesic of choice in the treatment of myocardial infarction. It reduces both pain and anxiety as well as cardiac overload due to the reduction of heart overload and afterload (Reddy, Khaliq, & Henning, 2015).
Thrombolytic agents
These drugs aim at dissolving thrombi that block the coronary artery to bring about the disease symptoms (Steg et al., 2012).
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
These drugs inhibit the physiological conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II resulting in reduced renal excretion of sodium. Such a thing reduces cardiac overload. According to Evans et al. (2016), these drugs are effective in improving left ventricular ejection fraction, which is associated with improvement in patient survival.
Lesson Activity
Effective Questioning
The teacher will engage learners by asking them questions concerning various aspects of myocardial infarction. For example, the teacher will ask learners to define myocardial infarction and state its symptoms. Learners will answer the questions appropriately and the teacher will determine whether their responses are right or wrong.
Assignment
Describe the investigations a clinician should carry out to diagnose myocardial infarction. Information acquired from other sources should be cited and a reference list included using APA style.
References
Evans, M., Carrero, J. J., Szummer, K., Åkerblom, A., Edfors, R., Spaak, J.,…Jernberg, T. (2016). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in myocardial infarction patients with renal dysfunction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 67(14), 1687-1697.
Frangogiannis, N. G. (2014). The inflammatory response in myocardial injury, repair, and remodeling. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 11(5), 255-265.
Fröbert, O., Lagerqvist, B., Olivecrona, G. K., Omerovic, E., Gudnason, T., Maeng, M.,…Erlinge, D. (2013). Thrombus aspiration during ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. New England Journal of Medicine, 369(17), 1587-1597.
Reddy, K., Khaliq, A., & Henning, R. J. (2015). Recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of acute myocardial infarction. World Journal of Cardiology, 7(5), 243-276.
Steg, P. G., James, S. K., Atar, D., Badano, L. P., Lundqvist, C. B., Borger, M. A.,… Gershlick, A. H. (2012). ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation. European Heart Journal, 33(20), 2569–2619.
Vakil, K., Taimeh, Z., Sharma, A., Abidi, K. S., Colvin, M., Luepker, R.,…Adabag, S. (2014). Incidence, predictors, and temporal trends of sudden cardiac death after heart transplantation. Heart Rhythm, 11(10), 1684-1690.
Dukes Hospital Integrated Internal Business Process
Introduction
The internal Business process is one such technique that its importance cannot be underplayed in any organization. It is through this management technique that various institutions have been able to rise above the Challenges that faces today’s organization. This management challenges come in the form of connection between professionalism and business management. While looking at these issues, the paper is mainly focused on Dukes Hospital as a case study and a success story of the application of the Integrated Internal Business Process. In looking at this case example the paper tries to bring out the pros and cons of using this technique and why it worked well for Dukes Hospital which is a relatively large medical firm.
Analysis
The internal Business process is one management technique that advocates for the good working platform between the administrators in a company or a firm. This entails joining the administration and the professional staff. Given the technical status that the medical field entails, it must be acknowledged that such technique is very necessary in order for the administrators who are usually not Medics and the clinicians who are the actual persons on the ground. While the administrators may make decisions on their own, failure to have proper consultation with the clinicians would render such an organization a failed one.
Management being a key tool in the running of institutions is one important aspect that has actually been brought out by the facts and the figures of the Duke Hospital. The change in Performance from the slump to the good performance is one such indicator of hoe important Internal Business Process. The hospital has even expanded to the level of opening up two new branches. The internal Business Process plays a key role in the management and the coordination of the three branches. The transfer of patients from one branch to the other is one such matter for example that cannot just be done by the management without the inclusion of the clinicians.
The clients of the hospital enjoy quality services from the staff of the hospital as the staff try to do their best and deliver up to the standards services. The human resource department of the hospital firm has worked well to the level of keeping the staff motivated hence work with all the passion hence quality is assured.
The importance of Managers in the formulation and the implementation of policies can not be overruled. However the fields of public health calls for a different approach to the way the managers ensure policies are well formulated and implemented. This is due to the fact that goodwill from the authorities (political) and the common citizens is required for the success of the policies rather than the strategic decision making.
Public has more to deal with the health of the populations as a whole and not the one on one heath care that is more specific. The main goal to public health is to identify and help control the threats to the health standards of a given population as a whole. It also has to do with the creation of policies that will support public health. The field can only work through corporation with other fields such as economics, sociology and medicine.
Political will is a paramount to ensuring the health standards of the masses are well taken care of. This is due to the fact that the political leaders provide a mouthpiece through which the people can talk. A case in point for example where garbage collection in an estate is not well done, the people can petition the concerned authorities through their leader. While those concerned with the cleanliness of an estate for example are not to be reminded by the citizens it serves to provide better services the political leaders here become a push factor for improvement of the health standards.
Power of the masses of the masses can not be underrated when it comes to the issue of public health. Since public health affects large numbers of people, then whenever the health standards go down then the large masses would be affected. The fear of victimization and the spirit of group dynamics will cause such populations to resort to working as a group in solving the problem. This way the masses will make their grievances known through ways like demonstrations and other forms of mass action. Mass action can only be effective if the members of the given group are affected in one way or the other. This gives them the pressure to air their grievances in the best way possible.
Strategic planning can be done on public health, these health organizations come in handy in ensuring that the required health procedures and standards are adhered to. These organizations, usually work with the local community in following up the progress of the health standards.
The rating of the health standards and the presence of the health hazards in an area is subject to individual ratings of the status. If the cleanliness of an estate is not up to date, the residents must be able to note this and make their grievances known. As such it is the masses to discover that the place has health hazards and look for ways of fixing this problem. The sensitivity to public health standards varies from place to place depending on the inhabitants of that area.
The application of the internal Business Process in Duke Hospital has enabled the company to reduce on the operational costs. This is due to the mere fact that by involving all the stakeholders, the hospital has been able to bring the mind of ownership in the professionals that work with the hospital. Since the inception of the management technique, the hospital has seen the losses in terms of handling of the facilities and loss through pilferage reduce greatly. This is due to the feeling of ownership that is brought out through the inclusion of the clinicians and the administrators.
Conclusion
Duke Hospital is one in a kind that has worked to overcome the challenges that the 21st Century comes with it. The ever expanding size of the firm points to how the management business process can be used to be of great benefit to the organization. The nature of the firm and by the fact that it has branches and plans of expansion points to proper planning and this can only is possible with well coordinated Internal Business Process.
The application of Internal Business Process has enabled the company in general be able to reduce on operational costs ,ensure their good publicity and at the same time maintain good relations between the firm management and the key professionals in the firm that are the Clinicians.
In summary, the administrative functions in any organization are up to fail if the professionals are not included. The professionals are the key engineers of quality while the administration is business minded.