HIV Infection Among The Black Population In England Essay Example

AIDS, Black People, England, HIV

Introduction

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The immune system is attacked by this virus, which can eventually lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (Carlisle, C., 2000). It is a medical condition caused by HIV. AIDS occurs when the immune system becomes severely damaged and cannot fight off diseases and infections any longer. AIDS was first recognized as a medical condition in 1981, while HIV was first identified in 1983. The virus originated from a chimpanzee that carried a similar virus called the Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in Central Africa (Hemelaar, J., 2012). The virus is thought to have been transmitted to human beings through the consumption of infected animals that they hunted. HIV is a pandemic that is global today and affects millions of people worldwide. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been developed to help slow the virus’s progression and manage it since there is no cure for HIV/AIDS. HIV can be spread through contact with infected blood, vaginal fluids, or semen. HIV/AIDS remains a significant public health concern among the black community in the United Kingdom. Black people are disproportionally affected by HIV despite the advances in HIV treatment and prevention strategies. According to recent estimate suggestions in 2019, 106,890 people living in the U.K. are living with AIDS. Five thousand one hundred fifty of these do not know they are HIV positive since they are undiagnosed. London, England, continues to have higher HIV rates. In 2020, 37% of new HIV diagnoses were in England residents, with most of the infected people being black or men who have sex with other men (Wilton L et al.,2009). 38% of people infected with HIV went for care and lived in London. In the U.K., out of 4,139 people infected with AIDS in 2019, 41% were bisexual or gay men, and 37% were black (Bhaskaran, K et al.,2021). Several factors contribute to this higher prevalence of HIV/AIDS among the black population in England. These include discrimination, stigma, cultural barriers to HIV treatment and prevention services, poverty among black people, and poor access to healthcare. Among the Black population in England, the HIV impact is particularly severe, with an increased rate of new diagnoses and people accessing care. This can lead to significant social and economic consequences, including increased costs of healthcare, reduced workspace, and discrimination (Dougan S, et al.,2005). HIV weakens the body, and one can not carry out heavy tasks or duties and hence depend on other people for basic needs, leading to economic and social failure. In this essay, we will critically analyze and evaluate ways in which epidemiologic methods would be used to assess the levels of HIV, identify potentially effective interventions, and support the planning and effective implementation of a public health initiative.

HIV/AIDS in England

HIV/AIDS has four stages (Pathak, 2021), which are;

  1. Acute or Primary HIV infection occurs within 2 to 4 weeks after exposure to the virus and is the first stage. In this stage, one might experience flu-like symptoms such as rash, sore throat, or fever, but not all people experience these signs.

  2. Asymptomatic Stage: The virus then enters a dormant stage, causing no noticeable signs and symptoms for several years. But the virus still damages the immune system since it is active.

  3. Symptomatic HIV infection Stage: The immune system continues being damaged by the virus, and symptoms like fatigue, loss of weight, lymph nodes that are swollen, and fever may begin to appear.

  4. AIDS is the last and most advanced stage after the immune system has been damaged severely. People with AIDS are at risk of developing cancers or infections that cause a threat to life and are difficult to treat.

HIV can be transmitted through needle sharing, unprotected sex, and from mother to child during breastfeeding, childbirth, or pregnancy. HIV is a public health concern in England, mostly among the black population. In England, it is estimated that people with the highest HIV infections are the black communities, with an estimated 1 in 13 living with this virus (Rice, 2013). This is much higher than the overall prevalence in England, which is 1 in 200 people. To address the HIV spread among black people in England, public health intervention must promote health equity and address the root causes of health disparities among these people (Levy, 2014). This includes promoting awareness and educating on HIV treatment and prevention to reduce its spread. Similarly, they can improve access to education, healthcare centers, and prevention services and address poverty among the black population in England.

The immune system is attacked by HIV, making it difficult for the body to fight illness and infections. This leads to a weakened immune system over time and can result in many complications, including neurological disorders, cancers, and opportunistic infections. HIV progresses to AIDS, a life-threatening threat because of a lack of appropriate care and treatment. The impact of AIDS in England among the black population and the overall population can lead to significant social and economic consequences. These consequences include; discrimination, stigma, reduced workforce participation, and increased healthcare costs.

Interventions

What methods can be used for identifying the relevant interventions taking into account?

Various techniques can be used to find the most appropriate solutions to deal with the high rates of HIV transmission among the Black population in England. Literature reviews, discussions with stakeholders and experts, and involvement in the community are a few examples.

Conducting a comprehensive literature examination is a crucial step in finding pertinent therapies. To discover interventions that have been demonstrated to help lower HIV transmission among Black communities, a thorough search of published and unpublished studies is required (Randolph, 2009). Identifying pertinent initiatives can also benefit from a consultation with stakeholders and experts. Understanding their viewpoints and experiences may entail talking with healthcare professionals, local authorities, policymakers, and HIV-positive individuals.

Identifying pertinent interventions also requires using effective community involvement techniques. Learn about the needs and preferences of the Black community for HIV prevention and education; this may entail collaborating with community-based groups and interacting with Black community members. It is crucial to consider aspects like cultural sensitivity, accessibility, and acceptance among Black populations in England while choosing appropriate solutions. Community involvement and the involvement of culturally and linguistically diverse stakeholders can help achieve this (Wu, 2013). Discovering pertinent solutions is possible by utilizing a participatory method, which entails active participation and collaboration with community people. This strategy can aid in ensuring that solutions are responsive to the needs and preferences of Black communities and are culturally appropriate.

The specific context and population being addressed will determine the approach used to discover pertinent interventions. For instance, different techniques may be needed for Black women or those who inject drugs than for Black guys who have sex with men. It is crucial to consider the larger social and structural factors that contribute to HIV transmission among Black communities when choosing appropriate therapies. This might involve problems including healthcare access, discrimination, and poverty.

What epidemiologic designs and how does the hierarchy of evidence concept inform the choice of intervention for HIV infection among the black population in England?

The effectiveness of treatments for lowering HIV transmission among Black communities in England can be assessed using various epidemiological methodologies (Beyrer, 2012). These methodologies include observational studies, randomized controlled trials, and community-based participatory research.

The gold standard for assessing the efficacy of therapies in randomized controlled trials. In this research, participants are randomly assigned to either an intervention or a control condition, and the results of the two groups are compared (Silverman, 2009). The efficacy of interventions can also be assessed through observational research, such as cohort studies and case-control studies. In these studies, a group of people is monitored over time and the outcomes of those who received the intervention and those who did not are compared.

To find and implement interventions, community-based participatory research actively engages and collaborates with community members (Duke, 2020). This strategy can aid in ensuring that solutions are responsive to the needs and preferences of Black communities and are culturally appropriate. According to the hierarchy of evidence, evidence from randomized controlled trials is more reliable than observational studies. Cultural and environmental factors may influence the success of interventions; therefore, this hierarchy is only sometimes suitable or relevant.

When assessing the efficacy of treatments in the instance of HIV transmission among Black communities in England, it is crucial to take cultural and contextual aspects into account (Kaihlanen, 2019). For instance, if interventions do not consider cultural ideas, values, and behaviors, they may not be effective in Black groups, even in other populations. Mixed approaches, which include qualitative and quantitative data, can be used to evaluate the efficacy of treatments. The factors that lead to HIV transmission in Black communities may be better understood using this technique.

The exact intervention being evaluated and the population being studied will determine the epidemiological design to be used. Randomized controlled trials may not be practical or acceptable for evaluating interventions for structural or community-level changes. It’s crucial to assess the acceptability and viability of treatments among Black populations in England and their effectiveness. Consultation with community members and stakeholders may be necessary to ascertain their preferences and points of view regarding various interventions.

How can the characteristics, views, and discerning of stakeholders be obtained and used to inform the choice and implementation of the intervention?

It is crucial to comprehend the viewpoints and traits of the stakeholders engaged in identifying efficient solutions to address the high levels of HIV spreading in the Black population in England. Healthcare professionals, community leaders, policymakers, and HIV-positive people may all be considered stakeholders.

Focus groups or interviews are one method for learning about the perspectives and traits of stakeholders (Rustagi, 2015). These techniques enable a thorough investigation of people’s experiences, convictions, and attitudes regarding HIV prevention and treatment. Utilizing this data will allow initiatives to be specifically tailored to the requirements of England’s Black population.

Having cultural sensitivity is equally essential when creating interventions for England’s Black population (Wilson, 2003). Understanding and respecting the cultural practices and beliefs of the community is necessary for this, as is making sure that treatments are specifically designed to address these cultural demands. It is critical to evaluate the social determinants of health that contribute to HIV disparities in the Black community in addition to getting stakeholder viewpoints. These may include, among other things, poverty, racism, and discrimination. It could be important to address these fundamental problems in order to lower HIV transmission successfully.

Collaboration between various stakeholders is crucial for the creation and execution of successful initiatives (Piot, 2015). To ensure that interventions are thorough and fulfill the needs of everyone involved, this may entail collaborating with healthcare professionals, community organizations, policy officials, and people living with HIV. The effectiveness of interventions must also be ensured through evaluation and monitoring. To ascertain the impact of interventions on HIV transmission rates and other pertinent outcomes, continual data collection and analysis are required. Finally, it’s critical to make sure that initiatives are long-term sustainable. As a way to foster community ownership of initiatives and create capacity, this may entail collaborating with neighborhood associations and groups.

Interventions on How to Reduce the Spread of HIV Infection among black people in England

The HIV/AIDS spread among black people in England has become a significant public health challenge. According to (Bhaskaran, K et al.,2021), black people are disproportionately affected and infected by HIV, leading to a higher HIV preference rate among the black community in England. As the lead epidemiologist in the public health organization, I take this issue very seriously. It is clear that this is a multi-faceted and complex problem that requires evidence-based and comprehensive intervention.

Proposed Intervention:

My proposed intervention is to develop an HIV/AIDS program that is comprehensive and puts its focuses on improving HIV/AIDS awareness and knowledge among the black population in England. The program aims to increase access to HIV prevention, testing, and treatment services through community-based interventions, including outreach programs, peer-led support, and education. (Williams, M.V et al.,2011)The program will also include the promotion of pre-exposure prophylaxis and the provision of HIV self-testing kits which are effective HIV prevention tools.

Procedures and Methods.

The intervention proposed above will have the following methods and procedures:

Identification of high-risk groups: Identification of high-risk groups among the black population in England is the first step in implementing this HIV prevention program. These groups may include sex workers, people who inject drugs, or men who have sex with men. The groups will then be educated on HIV awareness, prevention, and control to help reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS (Williams M.V. et al.,2011).

Community engagement and mobilization: Community mobilization and engagement will be involved with this program to help promote HIV prevention and awareness. This will be achieved through the engagement of peer educators to promote HIV testing and disseminate information and through partnership establishment with community organizations.

Outreach programs will be organized to reach high-risk groups likely to have access to conventional healthcare services. Outreach programs will provide support, HIV testing services, and education on HIV.

Providing self-testing kits: For individuals who may want to access conventional testing kits, the program will provide them with self-testing kits. This will help increase the number of people who know their HIV status in England and help reduce its spread through sex, drug injection, etc.

Linkage and Follow-up to care: Individuals who test HIV positive will be provided with the appropriate and necessary support and treatment and will also be linked to care. This program will also include follow-up services to ensure that individuals receive the necessary support and adhere to their treatment regimens.

Provision of PrEP: Pre-exposure prophylaxis will be promoted as a more effective tool among high-risk groups. This will involve having access to PrEP services and being educated on the PrEP benefits.

Evaluation and Monitoring: The program will be evaluated and monitored to assess its effectiveness in HIV spread reduction among the black population in England. This will involve using indicators such as the number of people who initiate PrEP, the number of people tested for HIV, and the number of people linked to care (Auerbach, J.D et al.,2011).

Benefits of the intervention

  1. The uptake of HIV testing will increase while the number of undiagnosed cases will reduce.

  2. Awareness of HIV/AIDS is increased among the black population in England (Brock, C. and Alexiadou, N., 2013).

  3. Access to treatment services, HIV testing, and prevention is improved.

  4. Health equity for the black population in England will be improved.

  5. The spread of HIV among high-risk groups is reduced.

  6. The health outcome of people living with AIDS will be improved.

  7. The stigma associated with HIV/AIDS will be reduced.

Challenges

The intervention proposed above may face several challenges, including;

  1. Access to care: Individuals living in areas with limited individuals to tame care of them or limited healthcare resources are most likely to face the challenge of access to care.

  2. Limited Funding: For this program to reach its target audience, it may require significant funding, and securing adequate funds may be a major issue.

  3. Stigma: Stigma associated with HIV/AIDS may limit the effectiveness of outreach programs and may make it challenging to engage high-risk groups (Yilmaz, V. and Willis, P., 2020.)

Implementation of the Intervention.

This involves monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of my intervention.

Primary Health Outcomes

The following are primary health outcomes that would evaluate the effectiveness of my intervention;

  1. The proportion of people getting tested for HIV will increase.

  2. Incidences of new HIV infections will reduce among the black population in England (de-Graft Aikins, A. et al.,2010).

  3. The proportion of individuals with viral suppression will increase.

  4. Increase in the proportion of individuals adhering to antiretroviral therapy.

Secondary Health Outcomes

  1. Reduction in HIV-related discrimination and stigma.

  2. Increase in safer sex practices such as condom use.

  3. Reduction in HIV-related mortality and morbidity.

  4. The quality of life of people living with HIV improves.

To evaluate the changes in secondary and primary health outcomes in the reduction and prevention of HIV spread among the black population in England after the intervention to develop an HIV/AIDS program that is comprehensive and puts its focus on improving HIV/AIDS awareness and knowledge among the black population in England. The combination of these epidemiological methods would provide a comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of the HIV/AIDS program in improving HIV/AIDS knowledge and awareness among the black people living in England and reducing the spread of HIV. The following epidemiological methods could be used (Prince M et al.,2007).

  1. Cohort Studies.

These studies could be conducted among individuals living with HIV in England to evaluate changes in viral suppression rates, HIV-related mortality, and morbidity after the intervention and adherence strictly to ART. A cohort study involves having recruited a group of individuals living with AIDS and doing a follow-up on them over some time in order to be able to evaluate their health outcome changes. The method would greatly impact and help reduce HIV-related mortality and morbidity after evaluating HIV/AIDS program’s impact.

  1. Sentinel surveillance.

Sentinel surveillance involves monitoring trends in HIV prevalence and incidence among high-risk groups, including the black population in England. This method would be useful in evaluating the HIV/AIDS program’s impact on reducing HIV spread. Prince, M.

  1. Pre- and post-intervention surveys.

This method involves collecting data through surveys before and after the intervention to evaluate changes in HIV awareness, attitudes, practices, and awareness among the black population. This method would be useful in the evaluation of the impact of the HIV program on increasing promoting safer sex practices, HIV testing, and reducing HIV-related discrimination and stigma.

  1. Qualitative Studies.

These studies could be conducted among people living with HIV to explore the changes in their quality of life and experience of stigma and discrimination after the intervention. This method would be useful in improving the quality of life of people living with HIV.

  1. HIV incidence studies.

These studies could be conducted to monitor the incidence of new infections of HIV among the black population in England. This method would be useful in evaluating the impact of the HIV/AIDS program on reducing the incidence of new infections of HIV/AIDS.

Conclusion

In conclusion, HIV infection remains to be a significant public health issue among black people in England. The level of HIV infection among this population can be accessed by epidemiological methods, which are essential for this function. These methods provide critical insights into the risk factors, prevalence, and incidences associated with the disease. The methods can provide valuable information to healthcare providers, policymakers, and health officials in implementing and designing interventions to help control and prevent HIV spread among this population. With the right strategies and interventions, reducing the HIV infection burden among the black population in England will be made possible, and improving the health outcomes of the people infected will be easy. In this essay, we decided to focus on improving HIV/AIDS awareness and knowledge among the black population in England. We aim to educate, provide access to treatment and testing, address cultural and social factors contributing to the spread of HIV, and address inequality and poverty. Black people in England should get tested, and those infected should seek medical help and avoid spreading the disease.

References

Auerbach, J.D., Parkhurst, J.O. and Cáceres, C.F., 2011. Addressing social drivers of HIV/AIDS for the long-term response: conceptual and methodological considerations. Global public health, 6(sup3), pp.S293-S309.

Beyrer, C., Baral, S.D., Van Griensven, F., Goodreau, S.M., Chariyalertsak, S., Wirtz, A.L. and Brookmeyer, R., 2012. Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. the Lancet, 380(9839), pp.367-377.

Brock, C. and Alexiadou, N., 2013. Education around the world: A comparative introduction (Vol. 13). A&C Black.

Carlisle, C., 2000. The search for meaning in HIV and AIDS: The carers’ experience. Qualitative Health Research, 10(6), pp.750-765.

Bhaskaran, K., Rentsch, C.T., MacKenna, B., Schultze, A., Mehrkar, A., Bates, C.J., Eggo, R.M., Morton, C.E., Bacon, S.C., Inglesby, P. and Douglas, I.J., 2021. HIV infection and COVID-19 death: a population-based cohort analysis of U.K. primary care data and linked national death registrations within the OpenSAFELY platform. The Lancet HIV, 8(1), pp.e24-e32.

Calin, T., Green, J., Hetherton, J. and Brook, G., 2007. Disclosure of HIV among black African men and women attending a London HIV clinic. AIDS care, 19(3), pp.385-391.

de-Graft Aikins, A., Boynton, P. and Atanga, L.L., 2010. Developing effective chronic disease interventions in Africa: insights from Ghana and Cameroon. Globalization and health, 6(1), pp.1-15.

Dougan, S., Elford, J., Rice, B., Brown, A.E., Sinka, K., Evans, B.G., Gill, O.N. and Fenton, K.A., 2005. Epidemiology of HIV among black and minority ethnic men who have sex with men in England and Wales. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(4), pp.345-350.

Glik, D., Nowak, G., Valente, T., Sapsis, K. and Martin, C., 2002. Youth performing arts entertainment-education for HIV/AIDS prevention and health promotion: Practice and research. Journal of health communication, 7(1), pp.39-57.

Kumar, D., Watson, J.M., Charlett, A., Nicholas, S. and Darbyshire, J.H., 1997. Tuberculosis in England and Wales in 1993: results of a national survey. Public Health Laboratory Service/British Thoracic Society/Department of Health Collaborative Group. Thorax, 52(12), pp.1060-1067.

Levy, M. E., Wilton, L., Phillips, G., 2nd, Glick, S. N., Kuo, I., Brewer, R. A., Elliott, A., Watson, C., & Magnus, M. (2014). Understanding structural barriers to accessing HIV testing and prevention services among black men who have sex with men (BMSM) in the United States. AIDS and behavior, 18(5), 972–996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-014-0719-x

Longini, I.M., Clark, W.S., Haber, M. and Horsburgh, R., 1989. The stages of HIV infection: waiting times and infection transmission probabilities. Mathematical and statistical approaches to AIDS epidemiology, pp.111-137.

Piot, P., Bartos, M., Ghys, P.D., Walker, N. and Schwartländer, B., 2001. The global impact of HIV/AIDS. Nature, 410(6831), pp.968-973.

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Prince, M., Patel, V., Saxena, S., Maj, M., Maselko, J., Phillips, M.R. and Rahman, A., 2007. No health without mental health. The Lancet, 370(9590), pp.859-877.

Randolph, J., 2009. A guide to writing the dissertation literature review. Practical assessment, research, and evaluation, 14(1), p.13.

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Impacts Of Social Media On Human Relationships Writing Sample

Social media is widely used nowadays. Most people have shifted to social media for different purposes. When the Covid-19 pandemic was discovered, most businesses were closed, and movement was restricted. Therefore, many people started working online to avoid overcrowding in workplaces. Business people took advantage of online and started selling their products through social media platforms.

Similarly, schools decided to use online instruction and continue with the curriculum since students were restricted from attending school. Since the onset of the pandemic, many people have shifted to online and social media platforms are the ones that were mostly used. Despite all the benefits of social media, there are also various disadvantages. One of the largest disadvantages of social media is the breaking up of relationships. This paper discusses the negative impacts of social media use on human relationships.

There are different ways in which social media can affect student relationships both in school and at home. The first negative effect of social media that affects student relationships is reduced face-to-face interaction (Abbas et al., 2019). The use of social media increased during the pandemic when students were instructed to vacate from school premises to avoid congestion and overcrowding. When students started learning online, they got used to interment and started communicating through social media platforms, reducing face-to-face interactions between teachers and other students. Social media communication weakened the relationships that could have been strengthened if the student were to meet with other students or a teacher and discuss questions (Abbas et al., 2019). Generally, social media has hindered the formation of meaningful relationships.

The second impact of social media that has affected student relationships is negative self-image. When students use social media, they started comparing themselves and their images with those of the people they see on the internet. Students who do not have good body figures feel embarrassed when they compare themselves to others. In turn, affected students suffer from low self-esteem, depression or anxiety which ruin their relationships with others (Braghieri et al., 2022). Misformation is the third effect of social media that affects student relationships. Students and youths are the people who are most addicted to social media use. Most students tend to post things which happen on social media without even confirming whether it is true or false. Once students hear certain information about other students or teachers, they post them. Posting false information usually leads to mistrust among students, ruining their relationships (Braghieri et al., 2022). Even though the information posted is true, it can ruin the relationship since the victim’s reputation is spoilt. The final effect of social media use that affects student relationships is addiction. Once students are affected, they spend much time online and fail to perform important tasks like assignments (Abbas et al., 2019). Please do assignments to maintain the relationship between teachers and students, as students can fail their exams.

Social media use has negative impacts on adult users, affecting their relationships in the community. The first effect of social media that can affect adult relationships is addiction (Hou et al., 2019). There are different ways in which addiction to social can affect relationships. First, when people are addicted to social media, they spend most of their time on it and neglect their partners, parents and even their children (Hou et al., 2019). Once people have been neglected, the relationship is automatically ruined. Another effect of addiction is a lack of engagement. When adults are addicted to social media, they spend most of their time online and forget their roles and responsibilities. People forget to engage themselves, leaving others to feel isolated.

The second effect of social media use on adults is relationship conflict. There are several ways in which social media use can lead to conflicts in a relationship. First, conflict can occur due to misunderstanding (Bao et al., 2021). Misunderstanding can come through posts and messages people post on social media. For instance, one partner can post something on Facebook or WhatsApp, and the other one can feel attacked by the post. This will automatically lead to quarrels among the partners. Second, relationship conflict can occur due to suspicion and jealousy (Bao et al., 2021). When people use social media, they usually interact with others. Suspicion and jealousy arise if partners interact with people of the opposite sex. For example, if one partner has got more friends of the opposite sex, the other partner can have jealousy and feel that he is being cheated on. Finally, conflict among adult partners can come through different opinions and beliefs. Once partners use social media, they normally get exposed to different beliefs (Wu & Chiou, 2020). The different beliefs in things like politics can lead to conflict and arguments in a relationship. Secondly, some partners like posting their proceedings on social media, while others do not. Some believe that posting things on social media is wrong since they expose your privacy. Therefore, such things can also cause conflict in a relationship.

The final effect of social media that can ruin relationships among adults, especially married people, is comparison (Wu & Chiou, 2020). When married people use social media, they get exposed to people with different shapes, which they wish they could have or their partners could have such shapes. For instance, when women see people on social media platforms, especially those doing gym advertisements, they wish that their husbands have such shapes. Similarly, when men see ladies in social media, especially those modelling, they wish their wives could have such shapes. In turn, when they come to talk about it with the other partner, they can cause conflict and ruin their relationships.

Like students and adults, social media use can damage employees’ relationships with their bosses and other colleagues in the workplace. The first effect of social media that can ruin employees’ relationships with their bosses and colleagues is distraction (Cao & Yu, 2019). When workers use social media, especially at work, they can be distracted from their core objectives. In turn, this can lead to poor productivity in the work assigned, affecting the relationship between the worker and the boss or the manager. Additionally, a distraction which is an effect of social media use, can also affect the relationship between the worker and other colleagues (Cao & Yu, 2019). Most companies assign workers to work in teams or groups. In that case, the effort of every employee is needed for the team to succeed. If one employee in a group is addicted to social media, he can get distracted by it and affect the performance or productivity of the team. In turn, this will affect the relationship between this work and other employees in the team.

The second effect of social media that can affect employee relationships is miscommunication and misunderstanding. When employees communicate on social media, there is always miscommunication or misunderstanding of messages (Cao & Yu, 2019). For instance, social media communication does not have nonverbal cues that will lead to a better understanding of the message. Secondly, people understand the messages differently. An employee can send a message to a colleague or the boss. Since he is not there to clarify his meaning, the message can be interpreted differently, affecting the relationship between the two parties (Bao et al., 2021). Finally, social media platforms like WhatsApp have to autocorrect. When an employee is typing a message, especially in a hurry, the platform can autocorrect some words in the message, and the text will convey a different meaning. If the meaning is bad, it can ruin the relationship between the two parties in communication.

Another way social media can affect the relationship between workers and their bosses is through delayed replies or responses (Cao & Yu, 2019). It is undeniable that social media depends on internet connectivity for it to function. Sometimes the internet may be unavailable during the communication, and an employee will get the message late. If the messages are from the boss, for example, the boss can think that the employee has ignored his message, which will ruin the relationship between the boss and the worker (Cao & Yu, 2019). The final effect of social media that can ruin employee relationships is addiction. When employees are addicted to social media, they spend much time online and forget to perform their obligations, leading to poor productivity.

Conclusion

From the discussion above, it is clear that social media has got several negative impacts on human relations, including students, workers, and adults in the community, especially married couples. It is undeniable that social media use can affect the relationship between students and teachers and amongst students. Similarly, social media can affect the relationship between workers, their bosses, and colleagues. Finally, social media can affect the relationship between adults and other adults in society and between married couples. There should be severe research on mitigating these effects before they continue adversely ruining human relationships.

References

Cao, X., & Yu, L. (2019). Exploring the influence of excessive social media use at work: A three-dimension usage perspective. International Journal of Information Management, 46, 83-92.

Braghieri, L., Levy, R. E., & Makarin, A. (2022). Social media and mental health. American Economic Review, 112(11), 3660-3693.

Wu, H. Y., & Chiou, A. F. (2020). Social media usage, social support, intergenerational relationships, and depressive symptoms among older adults. Geriatric Nursing, 41(5), 615–621.

Hou, Y., Xiong, D., Jiang, T., Song, L., & Wang, Q. (2019). Social media addiction: Its impact, mediation, and intervention. Cyberpsychology: Journal of psychosocial research on cyberspace, 13(1).

Bao, T., Liang, B., & Riyanto, Y. E. (2021). Unpacking the negative welfare effect of social media: Evidence from a large scale nationally representative time-use survey in China. China Economic Review, 69, 101650.

Abbas, J., Aman, J., Nurunnabi, M., & Bano, S. (2019). The impact of social media on learning behaviour for sustainable education: Evidence of students from selected universities in Pakistan. Sustainability, 11(6), 1683.

Influence Of Information And Knowledge Management On Increasing Profits And Efficiency In Franchise And Chain Stores: A Case Study Of Ontario, Canada Sample Essay

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background and Description of Issue

Franchise and chain shops have grown practically ubiquitous in retail due to their ability to rapidly expand and gain economies of scale. However, growth into new sites is one of many factors influencing these shops’ profitability. Instead, referring to Easton et al. (2021), it is determined by their ability to manage information and knowledge throughout their whole network successfully. Data and information must be collected, stored, and disseminated between and within shops to make informed judgements (Karray et al., 2022). Effective information and knowledge management (IKM) techniques may benefit businesses looking to boost revenues and productivity. Lynch et al. (2021) say that IKM is the process of gathering, conserving, analyzing, and sharing information and knowledge inside an organization. Various technological tools and platforms may make these operations more efficient in this digital age.

This research aims to look at the link between effective IKM and the levels of profitability and productivity obtained by franchise and chain firms in Ontario, Canada. The study aims to evaluate how well these stores can manage their information and knowledge and how this influences their capacity to generate profits and operate efficiently in the retail market of Ontario. The findings of this research will be helpful for businesses looking to enhance their IKM strategies in the franchise and chain retail sector. The insights the study will provide enable businesses to make informed decisions about optimizing their IKM practices and staying competitive in a rapidly changing retail landscape.

1.2 Research Questions and Objectives

Research Questions

  1. What IKM practices are currently employed by franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada?

  2. How do these practices impact the profitability and efficiency of these businesses?

  3. What challenges and opportunities are associated with implementing effective IKM practices in franchise and chain stores?

  4. What strategies can be recommended to franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada, to improve their IKM practices and increase profitability and efficiency?

Main Objective

The overall objective of this study is to provide practical recommendations for franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada, to optimize their IKM practices and achieve better business outcomes.

Specific Objectives

  1. To identify the IKM practices currently used by franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada.

  2. To evaluate the impact of IKM practices on the profitability and efficiency of franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada.

  3. To determine the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing effective IKM practices in franchise and chain stores.

  4. To recommend strategies for improving IKM practices in franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada, to increase profitability and efficiency.

2.0 Literature Review

This literature review aims to analyze the role of IKM in increasing profits and efficiency in franchise and chain stores, specifically in Ontario, Canada.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 Definition of key concepts

Information management (IM), according to Karray et al. (2022), is the process of organizing, collecting, keeping, retrieving, and distributing data to aid in decision-making.

Conferring with Heroux (2020), knowledge management (KM) is creating, distributing, implementing, and managing information within an organization.

A franchise is a business model in which a smaller firm (the franchisor) offers another smaller company (the franchisee) the right to operate under its brand and operational standards in return for fees and royalties, as Easton et al. (2021) delineate.

Chain shops, bestowing to Lynch et al. (2021), are a group of separately owned and run retail supply firms.

2.1.2 Theoretical Perspectives and Models that Explain the Relationship between IKM and Business Performance

In their qualitative study, Lee et al. (2020) establish that the Resource-Based View (RBV) theory posits that a company’s resources and capabilities, including its information and knowledge assets, can provide a competitive advantage and improve business performance. Relatively, Lynch et al. (2021) comprehend that the Knowledge-Based View (KBV) theory argues that a firm’s knowledge assets are essential for sustained competitive advantage and superior performance. The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a performance management framework that emphasizes the importance of aligning organizational objectives with its strategic plan, including the management of information and knowledge assets (O’Brady, 2019). The Dynamic Capabilities (DC) theory, as Heroux (2020) contends, suggests that firms need to continuously adapt and reconfigure their resources and capabilities, including IKM, to respond to changing business environments.

2.2 IM in Franchise and Chain Stores

2.2.1 Description of IM Practices in Franchise and Chain Stores

IM strategies are critical to the long-term efficiency and effectiveness of franchise and chain store businesses. O’Brady (2019) understands that these practices use a range of technologies to gather, process, and store data and information relevant to the organization’s operations. It is a typical corporate practice to use point-of-sale (POS) systems to monitor sales and inventory levels, as Lynch et al. (2021) note. These systems give real-time inventory data, enabling the franchise or chain shop to adapt swiftly to changes in customer demand and prevent stockouts. Another critical business activity is using customer relationship management (CRM) systems to handle customer data and interactions, according to Karray et al. (2022). These solutions help establish a thorough audience awareness, opening the way for improved customer service and more focused marketing campaigns.

Heroux (2020) establish that ERP systems also handle human resource and financial transaction information. Since they offer a consolidated database of financial information, these systems allow more exact financial planning and forecasting. Besides, Lee et al. (2020) say that the systems automate HR procedures like payroll, benefits administration, and performance management. In general, effective IM techniques are critical to the success of franchise and chain retail organizations. They allow data-driven choices to be made, increasing efficiency and improving the customer experience (Easton et al., 2021). Because of the fast advancement of technology, franchise and chain organizations must continue to invest in IM practices to preserve their industry-leading positions and stay relevant.

2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centralized vs. Decentralized IM Systems

In their findings, Lynch et al. (2021) assert that data is stored and managed centrally via centralized information management systems (IMS). Data and information are distributed to local storage through decentralized IMS, where they are managed and regulated (Lee et al., 2020). Control over data is a key benefit of centralized IM, according to Karray et al. (2022). All data and information are housed in a single system, making administration more manageable. This eliminates data loss and ensures all stakeholders access the same information. Also, referring to O’Brady (2019), centralized systems improve data analysis and decision-making. All relevant information is easily accessible, making identifying trends and patterns influencing choices easier. The systems improve data security, consistency, and execution of procedures and rules. However, Heroux (2020) says the centralized system is expensive to build and maintain. Communication breakdowns and delays are likely when transferring information across departments or locations. Because of their design, centralized systems may restrict local customization and adaptation.

On the other hand, localization is an essential feature of decentralized IMS. To boost productivity and efficiency, any site or department may customize the system (Easton et al., 2021). Since each firm or department manages its data, decentralized systems improve communication and cooperation. Lynch et al. (2021) articulate that decentralized systems are easier to set up and manage, resulting in cheaper implementation costs. Decentralized IMS drawbacks include data discrepancies across locations may occur due to a lack of centralized administration and control (Lee et al., 2020). This may make making informed judgments based on exact and current information challenging. As Easton et al. (2021) acknowledge, decentralized systems may also need help to apply standardized processes and norms, leading to organizational incoherence. Decentralized systems may take more resources and skills to run efficiently since each site or department may have individual data management needs and requirements.

2.2.3 Case Studies/Examples of Successful IM Practices in Franchise and Chain Stores in Ontario, Canada

Easton et al. (2021) understand that using POS systems to track sales and inventory levels is one example of successful IM practices in franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada. This practice has enabled franchise and chain stores to identify sales trends and optimize inventory levels, increasing efficiency and profitability. Another example is using CRM systems to manage customer data and interactions, as Heroux (2020) explains. This strategy has allowed franchise and chain firms to understand better their consumers’ requirements and preferences, which has enhanced customer satisfaction and loyalty (O’Brady, 2019). In general, adopting IM methods in franchise and chain shops may lead to increased efficiency and profitability; nevertheless, the decision between centralized and decentralized systems depends on the individual demands and features of the company.

2.3 KM in Franchise and Chain Stores

2.3.1 Knowledge Creation, Sharing, and Utilization in Franchise and Chain Stores

Knowledge creation, sharing, and utilization are critical for achieving organizational goals and improving performance in franchise and chain stores. Karray et al. (2022) consent that franchise and chain stores operate in a highly competitive environment. Effective KM can provide a competitive advantage by facilitating faster decision-making, improving customer service, and enhancing product development. Knowledge creation in franchise and chain stores can involve research and development, customer feedback, and employee innovation (O’Brady, 2019). Referring to Heroux (2020), knowledge-sharing can occur through formal training programs, informal communication channels, and online knowledge-sharing platforms. Knowledge utilization will involve applying knowledge to improve customer service, optimize operations, and increase profits.

2.3.3 Factors that Facilitate or Hinder KM in Franchise and Chain Stores

Several factors can facilitate or hinder KM in the franchise and chain stores. Facilitating factors include a supportive organizational culture, effective leadership, a well-designed KM strategy, and technology to support knowledge sharing and collaboration (Lynch et al., 2021). According to Easton et al. (2021), Hindering factors include an organizational commitment to KM, resistance to change, inadequate technology infrastructure, and a lack of knowledge-sharing and utilization incentives.

2.3.4 Case Studies/Examples of Successful KM Practices in Franchise and Chain Stores in Ontario, Canada

Several franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada, have successfully implemented KM practices to improve their operations and increase profits. For example, O’Brady (2019) asserts that McDonald’s Canada has developed a comprehensive KM system that includes online training modules, an intranet for knowledge sharing, and a central database for storing information on product development and customer feedback. Similarly, referring to Lynch et al. (2021), Tim Hortons has implemented a KM system that includes online training, an internal knowledge-sharing platform, and a centralized database for tracking sales and inventory data. Many firms have boosted operational efficiency, improved product and service offerings, and increased income by applying specific KM tactics. The Canadian Tire company is also an excellent instance of how a knowledge-sharing program may be executed effectively, as Heroux (2020) determines. The initiative encourages workers to share their expertise and recommendations for improving corporate practices using an online portal. This has aided the firm in improving customer service and streamlining supply chain processes. Overall, these case studies demonstrate the importance of effective KM practices in improving organizational performance in franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada.

2.4 Impact of IKM on Business Performance

2.4.1 Metrics used to Measure Business Performance

Franchises and chain businesses are often assessed using a range of key performance indicators (KPIs), including revenue, profitability, customer happiness, staff productivity, and market share. O’Brady (2019) illustrate that revenue and profitability are the most often utilized measurements for analyzing a corporation’s success since they give insight into an organization’s overall financial health. Customer satisfaction with their purchases and the possibility that these customers would make further purchases is an important KPI (Karray et al., 2022). Employee productivity measures the workforce’s efficacy in completing operations and meeting organizational objectives, while market share reflects the company’s share of the market in which it competes and operates.

2.4.2 Studies that Investigate the Impact of IKM on Business Performance in Franchise and Chain Stores

Many studies have investigated the impact of IKM on the financial performance of franchise and chain store operations. For example, Lee et al. (2020) depict that KM strategies such as information development, sharing, and usage favoured the financial performance of franchise firms. According to the findings of Lynch et al. (2019), efficient IM tactics such as data extraction and analysis can significantly increase franchise shops’ operational efficiency and profitability.

2.4.3 Case Studies/Examples of Franchise and Chain Stores in Ontario, Canada, that have Improved their Business Performance through IKM

Several franchise and chain businesses in Ontario, Canada, have improved their overall performance due to their successful IKM procedures. Second Cup, a Canadian coffee chain, has implemented a data-driven approach to making business decisions (Easton et al., 2021). The company employs a centralized database to track customer preferences, sales trends, and inventory levels. Because of this, the company has increased the quality of its products, decreased waste, and increased revenue (Heroux, 2020). Similarly, O’Brady (2019) records that the Body Shop, a global cosmetics and hygiene company, has developed a comprehensive KM system. O’Brady (2019) continues that the store comprises online training, knowledge-sharing platforms, and performance indicators for measuring staff productivity and customer satisfaction. By implementing these KM techniques, the Body Shop has increased its product development, customer service, and profitability within the highly competitive retail industry.

2.5 Gaps in Research and Future Directions

2.5.1 Limitations of Previous Studies

Previous studies have looked at the link between effective IKM and the economic performance of franchise and chain store operations; however, these studies are constrained in various ways. Many studies have concentrated on quantitative company success metrics, such as revenue and profitability, while ignoring other critical elements, such as customer happiness and staff engagement. Second, there is a need for more studies on the precise ways and processes that franchise and chain organizations use to efficiently manage information and knowledge, as Easton et al. (2021) acknowledge. Most research has been done on large, well-known companies, and the problems that smaller or newer franchises and chain shops face have yet to be addressed.

2.5.2 Areas for Further Research

A range of possible study areas may be investigated to further our understanding of the link between good IKM and successful business operations in franchise and chain retail enterprises. Future studies might begin by looking at the function of technology in the management of information and knowledge. This may include using artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms to enhance knowledge production, sharing, and application processes. By comparative research, the efficacy of different methods of IKM, such as crowdsourcing, gamification, and the usage of social media platforms, might be studied (Lee et al., 2020). Researchers might look at the link between IKM and other critical organizational outcomes, including employee engagement, innovation, and sustainability. Last but not least, exploring the IKM issues that smaller or newly launched franchise and chain shops experience and providing viable solutions to these challenges would be essential.

2.6 Literature Review Summary

This literature review has identified the importance of IKM in improving the performance of franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada. The review found that effective knowledge creation, sharing, and utilization can increase revenue, profitability, and customer satisfaction. Organizational culture, leadership, KM strategy, and technology are the critical factors that facilitate or hinder KM in the franchise and chain stores. The case studies of successful KM practices in McDonald’s, Canada and Tim Hortons illustrate the potential benefits of effective IKM.

3.0 Discussion

3.1 Overview

The literature review provides an overview of the background and significance of IKM in franchise and chain stores. It highlights the potential benefits of effective IKM practices for improving the profitability and efficiency of these businesses. The review is crucial to provide practical recommendations for franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada, to optimize their IKM practices and achieve better business outcomes. The section will discuss the finding of the literature review regarding the topic and research objectives

3.2 IKM Practices in Franchise and Chain Stores

The study aimed to investigate the IKM practices employed by franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada. The study revealed that these stores utilize various IKM practices to ensure efficient and effective operations. Among these practices, POS, CRM, and ERP systems were the most commonly used (Karray et al., 2022; Lynch et al., 2021). The study also indicates that the size of the franchise or chain shop in issue influenced the application of these measures. It was revealed that bigger organizations preferred to utilize more complicated systems, while smaller enterprises tended to use simpler systems. Using IKM methods may substantially influence the performance of a franchise or chain shop, and bigger stores may have a competitive advantage if they employ more complex systems (O’Brady, 2019). The results are helpful for franchise and chain store managers and owners looking to enhance operations, and they shed light on the relevance of IKM approaches in the retail business.

3.3 Impact of IKM Practices on Profitability and Efficiency

The second objective of this study was to look at how IKM systems affect the profitability and productivity of franchise and chain firms in Ontario, Canada. According to the findings, there is a significant positive association between the usage of IKM systems and the levels of profitability and efficiency attained by these businesses. Implementing POS, CRM, and ERP systems was related to various advantages, including improved sales, decreased inventory costs, and increased customer satisfaction, according to Karray et al. (2022). Moreover, the research found a link between the usage of more sophisticated IKM systems and greater levels of performance when compared to merchants that used less advanced IKMS. This shows that investing in more current technology might increase financial performance for franchise and chain store businesses. As a consequence, the study findings recommend that retailers should apply creative IKMS in order to boost both profitability and operational efficiency. This research shows how IKM techniques may improve the operational efficiency of franchise and chain retail enterprises.

3.4 Challenges and Opportunities Associated with Implementing Effective IKM Practices

The third goal of this research was to look at the problems and potential of adopting good IKM practices in franchise and chain retail enterprises. According to the study, the main barriers are the complexity of the systems, the expense of adopting them, and the workers’ reluctance to change their working methods. Because licensees or branch managers have varied degrees of power, it may be challenging to adopt IKM techniques throughout an organization (Easton et al., 2021). This is particularly true when the organization has many branches. Notwithstanding these challenges, the study discovered several potential advantages of using these tactics.

Using IKMS can boost productivity, resulting in cheaper costs and higher production. These systems have more outstanding decision-making capabilities. Heroux (2020) highlights from the literature review that the systems can lead to better strategic planning for efficient operations and substantial profits. Moreover, implementing effective KM methods can improve customer service, client loyalty and future business (Karray et al., 2022). The study highlights the significance of effective IKM strategies for franchise and chain firms, implying that the potential advantages of employing these practices may exceed the risks. Before starting work on such a project, it is critical to assess the resources required, the complexity of the implementation process, and the likelihood of resistance to change.

3.5 Strategies for Improving IKM Practices

The study’s fourth goal was to provide various suggestions for strengthening IKMS at franchise and chain businesses in Ontario, Canada. This move was made to improve both profitability and efficiency. The literature review presented various unique techniques. According to O’Brady (2019), companies part of a franchise or chain must first invest in cutting-edge IKMS adapted to their business’s unique needs. Ensuring that personnel are adequately trained on utilizing these technologies and understand their advantages is critical. Lynch et al. (2021) advise franchise and chain organizations to create a centralized IMS to control and supervise the data and information they collect. As Heroux (2020) suggests, retail franchise and chain stores should regularly analyze and improve their IKMS to guarantee continuous profitability and efficiency. The findings indicate how important IKM methods are in increasing the competitiveness and profitability of franchise and chain store enterprises.

3.6 The Case of Ontario, Canada

Franchise and chain stores in Ontario, Canada, face unique challenges regarding IKM. Implementing effective practices and strategies can help these organizations streamline operations and stay competitive. A hybrid architecture that blends centralized and decentralized organizational structures might be a successful approach (O’Brady, 2019). This allows organizations to retain a greater degree of control and administration over data and information at the central level while yet allowing for flexibility and localization at the local level. Improving IKM through expanding a company’s financial commitment to worker education and development initiatives. Employees may get the knowledge and skills needed to handle information, engage with people, and cooperate with the help of these online classes. Besides, firms may build a culture of growth and learn by offering chances for continual training and development, as Easton et al. (2021) suggest. It is critical for franchise and chain store operations in Ontario, Canada, to have strong IKMS. These companies can better manage their data and information, boost communication and collaboration, and preserve their competitive edge in a continuously changing market because they have implemented a hybrid approach and engaged in staff training and development.

3.7 Summary

The study concludes that the contemporary business climate is exceedingly competitive. Franchise and chain shops must invest in cutting-edge information technology, offer proper training for their staff, and continually analyze and update their business practices to preserve their position as competitive and relevant market players. Due to the prevalence of contemporary technologies, customers have grown to demand simplicity and efficiency from companies. Consequently, businesses that fail to satisfy these expectations risk losing customers to rivals. Investing in cutting-edge technology may improve the customer experience, boost productivity, and save expenses. Nevertheless, employees must undergo recurrent training to use these technologies successfully and efficiently. Maintaining a competitive advantage in the market requires frequent audits and operating process modification. Effective business strategies from a few years ago may no longer be relevant in today’s market, necessitating the adjustments of processes for organizations to stay aggressive in a continuously changing environment. This includes assessing customer feedback, tracking trends, and comparing performance to rivals.

4.0 Conclusion

4.1 Summary and Implications

Managing information and knowledge is critical to the success of franchise firms and retail chain shops in the retail sector. The results of this case study done in Ontario, Canada, show that franchise and chain firms in the area use a range of IM tactics to assure the efficiency and effectiveness of their company operations. These processes include using technology to gather and store data and information relevant to the company’s operations. Moreover, the study’s results suggest efficient IKM approaches to enhance profitability and efficiency in retail businesses such as franchises and chain shops. The Resource-Based View theory, Knowledge-Based View theory, Balanced Scorecard framework, and Dynamic Capabilities theory provide theoretical perspectives and models that explain the relationship between information/knowledge management and business performance. Previous studies have also shown that effective IKM practices can improve performance in franchise and chain stores.

4.2 Recommendations for Practice

The findings of this study suggest that franchise and chain stores can benefit from implementing effective IKM practices to optimize their operations and achieve better business outcomes. Depending on the firm’s demands, this may include the deployment of centralized or decentralized IMS. However, putting in place effective IKM strategies brings both challenges and opportunities. Examples include the necessity for sufficient training and assistance for staff and the likelihood of technology-related concerns. Practitioners should consider implementing the findings of the study literature review by investing in KM systems and processes to improve organizational performance. They should also consider fostering a supportive organizational culture, effective leadership, and a well-designed KM strategy to facilitate knowledge creation, sharing, and utilization. Finally, practitioners should use technology to support knowledge sharing and collaboration.

4.3 Future research

A comparison of the effectiveness of different IKM strategies and technology’s role in the IKM process emerged as interesting subjects for additional study throughout this literature analysis. Future studies should examine how emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and blockchain may be leveraged to improve knowledge production, sharing, and usage in franchise and chain store contexts. Additionally, future research should compare the effectiveness of different KM strategies, such as communities of practice, expert systems, and knowledge repositories.

5.0 References

Easton, M. D., Noack, A. M., & Vosko, L. F. (2021). Are franchisees more prone to employment standards violations than other businesses? Evidence from Ontario, Canada. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 32(1), 39-64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304620961862

Heroux, L. (2020). A Longitudinal Study of American and Canadian Convenience Store Marketing Strategies. International Business Research, 13(8), 1–66. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v13n8p66

Karray, S., Martín-Herrán, G., & Sigué, S. P. (2022). Cooperative advertising in competing supply chains and the long-term effects of retail advertising. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 73(10), 2242-2260. https://doi.org/10.1080/01605682.2021.1973350

Lee, J. Y., Taras, V., Jiménez, A., Choi, B., & Pattnaik, C. (2020). Ambidextrous knowledge sharing within R&D teams and multinational enterprise performance: The moderating effects of cultural distance in uncertainty avoidance. Management International Review, 60, 387-425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-020-00416-9

Lynch, M., Graham, M., Taylor, K., & Mah, C. L. (2021). Corner Store Retailers’ Perspectives on a Discontinued Healthy Corner Store Initiative. International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 0272684X211004930. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272684X211004930

O’Brady, S. (2019). Rethinking precariousness and its evolution: A four-country study of work in food retail. European Journal of Industrial Relations, 25(4), 327–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959680118814339