Introduction
Due to life’s increasing challenges and pressures, domestic violence is rampant in 21st-century society. According to the Istanbul conference, “domestic violence occurs within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrators share or have shared the same residence with the victim” (Di Napoli & Carnevale et al., 2019). The definition depicts that most domestic violence occurs at the victim’s residence, the family setting. Children are a product of the family unit and encounter the happenings and turn of events in the family setting. Therefore, children are exposed to or witness the happenings and the outcome of domestic violence. Research shows that childhood exposure or witnessing DV can lead to health problems, behavioral change, disgruntled relationships, and other issues that affect normal functioning (Carter & Parankothy et al., 2022). Therefore, the paper seeks to research an understanding of how witnessing domestic violence affects children. It will use literature from other scholars to elaborate on specific thematic areas that seek to answer the research question and provide a conclusion.
Background and Scope of the Study
Statistics show that domestic violence or intimate violence cases have increased. Research shows that more than one million domestic violence cases involving men and women are emotional, physical, verbal, and sexual violence (Quzounian, 2019). The Centers for disease control continue to record an annual increase in cases related to family violence. However, the paper focuses on the concerns raised on the number of children exposed to domestic violence. Often, domestic violence occurs at home, especially at the family level, and children are at risk of witnessing such acts against their parents, guardians, or someone closer to them. According to Blake Edwards, a psychologist, domestic violence has a 45% to 60% co-occurrence rate among children because they witness an average of 68% to 80% of violent acts (Edwards, 2019). The number is 15 times higher than the expected exposure rate, whether physical or other forms of violence. Olivia Harrison analyzed the UNICEF report that shows that children are becoming witnesses of abuse caused of the existing link between child abuse and domestic violence (Harrison, 2021). The report shows that more than 40% of abuse cases result from domestic violence. Thus, children are at risk of experiencing emotional, physical, and social development. Harrison highlights the effects of violence, including increased risk of depression, delinquency, violent behaviors, anxiety, and depression. Also, the effects impact the children’s future life that, including education, relationships, or participation in domestic violence acts in the future (Harrison, 2021). Therefore, there is a likelihood that the cycle of violent practice will re-occur in future generations.
Further, Terra Pingley acknowledges that domestic violence impacts children and increases the chance of them getting abused (Pingley, 2017). The author points out that the number of domestic violence cases reported to the Children Protection Services co-relates to the number of child abuse or threats to children’s safety. Thus, the children are at risk of harm at their homes, and the Child Protection Services are urged to take the children to safety or provide measures to reduce such acts at the family level. Therefore, the disorder caused by family wrangles and violence distracts the child’s stability by causing psychological effects. Further, Pingley highlights other effects that include withdrawal, impacts on emotional and cognitive development, anxiety, aggressiveness, and other disorders that depict a psychologically disturbed person. Research on data collected by the National Epidemiologic Survey shows that emotional neglect was the leading form of maltreatment experienced by children. Also, a meta-analysis survey has attributed the increase in maltreatment among children to having severe consequences, especially in undeveloped and developing countries (Pingley, 2017).
Tsavoussis and Stawicki et al. analyzed the case study of Ohio to analyze the scope and prevalence of DV and its impacts on children (Tsavoussis & Stawicki et al., 2014). The research found that more than 70000 classes were made to the authorities to report cases of DV between 2006 and 2011. The rising number of cases prompted the authorities to arrest more than 40000 perpetrators of the acts. During the arrests, more than 20000 children were rescued from the menace, and the number of DV cases dropped significantly. Further, the state enacted legislation, laws, policies, and enforcement as intervention methods toward solving the crisis. Therefore, Ohio DV cases and their impacts on children have reduced due to providing an economic environment for women, improvement in educational systems, demographic changes, and racial diversity due to population increase. According to Briggs-Gowan, and Estabrook et al., more than 6% of maltreatment cases target children aged five years and below (Briggs-Gowan & Estabrook et al., 2019). Notably, 20% of the same cases revolve around domestic violence at the family level. Often, the less severe forms of maltreatment, including spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, are prevalent. Research shows that spanking acts among children as a form of domestic violence account for at least 70%. Thus, the percentages represent the direct forms of domestic violence directed at children. Also, more than a third of the reported cases of DV are equal to the number of children who have faced domestic violence (Briggs-Gowan & Estabrook et al., 2019). Therefore, it is evident that DV impacts children, affecting their growth, psychological and physical development, education, relationships, and other life-threatening experiences.
Domestic Violence among Children and Age
Domestic violence’s effect on children varies with age at exposure time. Melissa Stiles categorizes the age span per the domestic violence impact (Stiles, 2022). The identified categories are infants, preschool children, school-aged children, and adolescents. The authors suggest infants are vulnerable during partner abuse because it disrupts the child’s attachment needs. Research shows that more than 50% of children in families with violence are prone to excessive crying, sleeping problems, and eating disorders. Also, young children can suffer injury in case of physical violence or lack of care when their mothers are chased away from home. On the other hand, preschool-aged children are aware of the happenings within the family. Thus, witnessing DV causes panic and may result in headaches, psychosomatic complaints, and abdominal pains. Often, they experience sleep disturbances, enuresis, and thumb sucking, which are signs of stress. Notably, preschool-aged child looks upon their parents for protection and guidance against emotional, psychological, and physical harm. Thus, subjection to DV causes insecurity, regular crying, whining, and clinging. Others may experience nightmares and depict signs of terror accompanied by irritability, yelling, hiding, and stuttering (Stiles, 2022).
Further, Stiles explains that DV can impact school-aged children’s everyday lives and operations. The children will likely develop health challenges, including abdominal pains, less peer interaction, poor educational performance, and reduced engagement in physical activities like sports. The extent of the DV impact affects school-aged children’s self-esteem and confidence in the future because of shame and guilt emanating from domestic violence experiences. On the other hand, adolescents have affected family wrangles and are likely to be drawn to side with either of the violent participants. Often, domestic violence shapes the child’s favoritism towards one part of the family because of the daily experiences. The children at this stage develop low self-esteem and regard to social life. Thus, they will likely participate in early sexual activity, antisocial behavior, drug abuse, and delinquency (Stiles, 2022). Therefore, witnessing domestic violence impacts each age span differently.
Domestic Witnessing impacts during childhood
Domestic violence impacts the entire life cycle of childhood and can extend to adulthood if unresolved. According to Pingley, “…physiological and physiological development of child witnesses of domestic violence are unending” (Pingley, 2017). The author suggests that the impacts of domestic violence start before the child is born when the mother is subjected to stress, also known as indirect experiences. Further, sensing or perceived threat to parents or caregivers is a stress that impacts a child’s emotional and behavioral outcome. Notably, children witnessing domestic violence will likely develop trauma that impacts their childhood development. Domestic violence can be witnessed directly or indirectly, depending on the type of violence taking place. Research by Ouzounian shows that any form of domestic violence witnessed by children, even if not directed to them, severely impacts their behavioral and emotional display at the time of the acts and later in their lives (Quzounian, 2019). Thus, children who do not experience the impacts instantly are silent witnesses or invisible trauma carriers who display the consequences of earlier experiences a later in their lives. Harrison opines that “as the child age, those who have been exposed to domestic violence may continue to show signs of problem…” (Harrison, 2021). The author acknowledges that witnessing domestic violence at a tender age impacts a child’s future concentration, school work, and behaviors. Harrison’s research shows that domestic violence impacts the individual’s emotional, physical, and social development after witnessing domestic violence. Also, 40% of the child becomes a perpetrator of violent acts when exposed to both domestic violence and child abuse (Harrison, 2021).
Inadequate Social Support, Self-Esteem, and Confidence
Research shows that children who witness domestic violence experience inadequate social support (Quzounian, 2019). Parents are often expected to facilitate their children in fully realizing their abilities and gaining confidence. Domestic violence distracts the attention meant for children to solving other domestic issues, including wrangles. Children are left disgruntled with minimum intervention from guardians, older siblings, or parents to bring the best out of them. Further, the children become socially withdrawn when faced with issues threatening their peace and safety. Thus, they become cold in interactions and engagement with the public and hence withdraw from social interaction.
Further, research shows that the self-esteem and confidence of children witnessing or witnessing domestic violence are relatively low. The low self-efficacy and low self-worthy are products of histories related to domestic violence. Notably, they are likely to feel shame, embarrassment, guilt, and humiliation whenever they encounter a scenario that reminds them of their past. According to Edwards’s psychological research, domestic violence makes caregivers unresponsive or unavailable to attend to the children’s emotional needs (Edwards, 2019). Thus the children’s development process is characterized by fear, indecisiveness, and unresolved emotions. The psychologist attributes the re-occurrence of childhood memories to the neurons’ firing pattern that gives rise to emotion, attention, and memories. Therefore, continuous exposure to similar situations evokes a memory that impacts a child’s self-esteem, confidence, and social pattern or a witness of domestic violence. Pingley says children depend on caregivers for safety and guidance (Pengley, 2017). Thus, caregiving should be provided in a non-violent environment that allows the children to enjoy care from their caregivers. The children should experience support, love, nurturance, and the development of good relationships and bond with the family members.
Post-Traumatic Stress
Trauma acquired during childhood is transferable to the future and impacts an individual’s lifestyle. According to Ouzounian, witnessing or exposure to violence leads to the development of post-traumatic stress (Quzounian, 2019). For example, a grown-up may fear darkness or fire because of childhood experiences. Often, adolescents are prone to post-traumatic issues because of the fresh memories of their experiences during childhood. Harrison opines that children witnessing domestic acts experience elevated levels of stress that cause cognitive malfunctioning. Thus, the behaviors of the young ones, especially adolescents, change, and some indulge in substance abuse. Others experience a lack of sleep, emotional stress, immaturity, fear of being alone, and communication challenges (Harrison, 2021). Research shows that chronic stress causes cause health problems that impact cognitive development and causes depression, ulcers, mental disorders, and other illnesses. Therefore, children’s exposure to stressful conditions, including domestic violence, must be reduced (Pengley, 2017). According to Tsavoussis, A., Stawicki et al., post-traumatic stress impacts cognitive structure and functioning. The cognitive impacts cause changes and adjustments in behavioral patterns and stress responses among children witnessing domestic violence. Notably, the early stages of a child’s brain are vulnerable to microenvironment influences, including parents, homes, schools, etcetera. Thus, children exposed to an unfavorable environment pick what is presented to them and act as their character to adulthood. Small room for change exists when an individual has grown (Tsavoussis & Stawicki, 2014). According to Elizabeth Plumptre, the impacts of post-traumatic stress can cause damage to the developing brain hence causing changes in sleep patterns, nightmares, and concentration (Plumptre, 2021).
Future Attachment Patterns
Notably, children with a background of domestic experience attachment challenges because of significant stress obtained in their childhood. The psychological stress caused by domestic violence lessens their interest in intimate relationships, the development of families, and the building of friendships with other people in the outside world (Quzounian, 2019). Often, their behaviors are characterized by anxiety, mood swings, and stress, especially when nearing a point of attachment. Also, domestic violence causes an emotional imbalance that causes unpredictable aggression, fights, and fighting habits with little provocation. Further, the witnesses of domestic violence cannot cope with changes quickly because they still hold back on past experiences. They are associated with anger, poor coping skills, and sadness, which makes them lose interest in changing their behaviors for the better. Instead, children witnessing domestic violence are likely to intervene, participate, or side with one of the parties in the wrangles. Pengley highlights that children develop insecure attachments when exposed to violence and start avoiding caregivers. The behavior is a product of what they witness during domestic violence, causing them to develop cold feet toward their caregivers. During exposure to domestic violence, the children miss learning about self-soothing, which is significant in promoting self-control. Thus, they will likely participate in any activity that makes them feel well (Pingeley, 2017). Also, Chastain’s research shows that the parents’ attentiveness to the child is significant to a child’s growth, emotional intelligence, and development. However, domestic violence distracts parents from attending to their children (Chastain, 2004). Therefore, domestic violence is a deterring factor in developing a solid background for children to prepare for a harmonious future.
Intergenerational
Children’s exposure to domestic violence creates a habit transferable to the next generations. According to Harrison, “there is a strong likelihood that this pattern of abuse will become a continuing cycle of violence for the next generations (Harrison, 2021). The upbringing of children determines their future character and behaviors. According to the author, children born witnessing domestic violence will likely become victims or perpetrators of the acts. For example, boys are likely to copy their father’s way of treating their mothers and apply it to their partners. Edward opines that children may witness parents fond of domestic violence being insensitive to their children’s presence during the act (Edwards, 2019).
Further, the caregivers or parents are likely to extend violent acts to their children, especially adolescents. It happens through erratic punishments, severe beatings, and a lack of consideration for the children’s needs. Thus, children pick the details of the experience and are likely to apply the same in future interactions and relationships with their families. According to Pengley, acknowledge that children who have witnessed domestic violence develop negativity towards parenthood, which impacts their future choices in building an intimate relationship.
In some cases, children have abandoned or abused their caregivers because of the perception acquired from witnessing domestic violence (Pangley, 2017). Research by Forke and Catallozi et al. shows that witnessing domestic violence impacts children’s compassion levels in the future. The author identifies that the witnesses’ ability to build a good relationship and care for their loved ones, offspring, or persons of the opposite gender is significantly impacted (Forke & Catallozi et al., 2019)
Conclusion
The literature research and discussion on individual thematic areas show that witnessing domestic violence affects a child’s immediate and later life experiences. The impact prolongs throughout the life of the child. Studies show that even an unborn child experiences stress when the mother is subjected to domestic violence. The act impacts the child’s physical, psychological, behavioral, social, and emotional. Thus it can be summarized that it affects the whole being of a child and their future activities and involvement. It is significant to ensure that children are protected from witnessing domestic violence. Also, measures should be implemented to reduce domestic violence in the family unit. Therefore, children will grow in a conducive microenvironment free from the toxic impacts of domestic violence and environments that expose them or make them vulnerable.
Annotated Bibliography
Ouzounian, Z. (2019). Childhood Witnessing of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Character Development Across Time and Adulthood Relationships (Doctoral dissertation, Antioch University). https://aura.antioch.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1592&context=etds
The research article is a thesis and a dissertation that surveys children witnessing domestic violence. The article aims to identify and discuss the impacts of domestic violence on the character development of children in their life. Notably, the article considers the intergenerational concepts that research the impacts of domestic violence in adulthood and the formulation of future relationships. Therefore, the article is credible for research on the effects of witnessing domestic violence on children.
Edwards, B. G. (2019). Alarming effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence. Psychology Today. Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/progress-notes/201902/alarming-effects-childrens-exposure-domestic-violence
The article is a reviewed psychology submission of Blake Edward, a licensed marriage and family therapist. The author highlights the increase in the number of children exposed to DV and its impact on their psychology and health. Notably, the article analyzes several impacts of DV on children and the measure of control needed to control the epidemic. Also, it explains the cognitive impacts of DV on children and how it slows brain functioning and child operations.
Harrison, O. (2021). Statistically Speaking: The Long-Term Effects of Domestic Violence on Children. Child. Legal Rts. J., pp. 41, 63. https://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1232&context=clrj
The research journal by Olivia Harrison is significant in analyzing the long-term effects of domestic violence on children. Its analysis is based on the UNICEF report, case illustration, and the Capstone research project. Its ability to use other materials or reports proves its credibility for consideration in research. Further, the research identifies possible significant solutions to addressing domestic violence issues.
Pingley, T. (2017). The impact of witnessing domestic violence on children: A systematic review. https://sophia.stkate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1779&context=msw_papers
The article is a clinical research paper that analyzes the impacts of witnessing domestic violence. Notably, it provides a systematic review of literature that elaborates on the scope of domestic violence and its impacts. The paper classifies the impacts into themes that touch on emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and multi-level perspectives. Thus, its broad scope of analysis and provision of elaborative analysis makes it significant for use in addressing issues between domestic violence and children.
Tsavoussis, A., Stawicki, S. P., Stoicea, N., & Papadimos, T. J. (2014). Child-witnessed domestic violence and its adverse effects on brain development: a call for societal self-examination and awareness. Frontiers in public health, pp. 2, 178. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00178/full
The article is a perspective paper that captures the views of several authors specializing in health, especially brain development. According to the authors, domestic violence impacts children’s psychology, which is found in the central nervous system. The article depicts that the continuous impacts of domestic violence affect society’s growth and functionality because of the existence of people with challenges. It focuses on the biological and psychological alterations in children. Lastly, it highlights the legal and political system for addressing domestic violence.
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Estabrook, R., Henry, D., Grasso, D. G., Burns, J., McCarthy, K. J., … & Wakschlag, L. S. (2019). Parsing dimensions of family violence exposure in early childhood: Shared and specific contributions to emergent psychopathology and impairment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 87, 100–111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213418302461
The research article involves the study data on domestic violence obtained from mother-report data that reflects the impacts of harsh parenting. Thus, it uses data from two large communities with good social and economic backgrounds and ethical diversity. The research provides the relationship between harsh parenting and children’s change of behavioral, social, and emotional patterns. Therefore, it is significant for research because it provides insights into family settings with conflicts.
Stiles, M. (2022). Witnessing domestic violence: The effect on children. American Family Physician, 66(11), 2052. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2002/1201/p2052.html
Melissa Stiles is a physician highlighting the effects of witnessing domestic violence on children. The article is significant in the research because it provides information on how the impact varies with age. Notably, younger children categorized as preschool-aged children are susceptible to the impacts of domestic violence more than adolescents. It also provides the thematic areas of impact by the epidemic by highlighting areas of interest that include behavioral, cognitive, and emotional effects. The article is credible for research because of the age-span classification thematic area.
Plumptre, E. (2021, November 17). How witnessing domestic violence affects children. Verywell Mind. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940
The medically reviewed article provides insights into the effects of witnessing domestic violence. It described the basics or description of the victims or witnesses of domestic violence. It highlights the long and short-term effects of witnessing domestic families within the thematic areas of social, emotional, physical, and psychological. Also, it advocates the ways that can be utilized to protect children from harm. Other areas addressed by the article are the long-term and short-term impacts and post-traumatic stress disorders.
Chastain, J. (2004). How Does Witnessing Domestic Violence Affect a Child’s Academic and Behavioral Performance at School? https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1097&context=theses
The article is a thesis that seeks to address the impacts of witnessing domestic violence on children’s behaviors and academics. It addressed the impacts of the epidemic on children’s cognitive development, hence impacting education. The article is rich in the literature on the background study that elaborates on the scope of witnessing domestic violence among children. Further, it analyzes the destructive behaviors associated with the impacts of children witnessing domestic violence.
Forke, C. M., Catallozzi, M., Localio, A. R., Grisso, J. A., Wiebe, D. J., & Fein, J. A. (2019). Intergenerational effects of witnessing domestic violence: Health of the witnesses and their children. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100942. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519301160
The article is a medical report focusing on the future of children exposed to domestic violence. Notably, the article reports on the situation or the livelihoods of the adults who witnessed domestic violence in their childhood. Also, it analyzes the health of the children witnessing domestic violence, including that of the children who live under parents exposed to DV in their early years. Therefore, the paper is significant in predicting the possible outcome of continued exposure of children to domestic violence.
Di Napoli, I., Procentese, F., Carnevale, S., Esposito, C., & Arcidiacono, C. (2019). Ending intimate partner violence (IPV) and locating men at stake: An ecological approach. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(9), 1652. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/9/1652
The article provides an ecological approach to solving intimate partner violence, a form of domestic violence. It acknowledges the existing effects of conflict among partners and the need to provide solutions to the epidemic. Thus, it examines violence and provides intervention methods that touch on relationships, individuals, communities, and organizations. Therefore, the article is significant because it highlights the reasons that prompt the intervention mechanism, answering the research question on the effects of witnessing conflicts.
Carter, B., Paranjothy, S., Davies, A., & Kemp, A. (2022). Mediators and effect modifiers of the causal pathway between child exposure to domestic violence and internalizing behaviors among children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(2), 594-604. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838020965964
The article review provides the modified mediators that act as pathways between the behaviors exhibited by children witnessing domestic violence. It analyzes the pathways that include the family, individuals, and the community that facilitate the impacts on children. The macro environment is a significant factor that influences the increase or reduction of domestic violence cases. Thus, the article is significant in providing the framework for research.
References
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Estabrook, R., Henry, D., Grasso, D. G., Burns, J., McCarthy, K. J., … & Wakschlag, L. S. (2019). Parsing dimensions of family violence exposure in early childhood: Shared and specific contributions to emergent psychopathology and impairment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 87, 100–111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213418302461
Carter, B., Paranjothy, S., Davies, A., & Kemp, A. (2022). Mediators and effect modifiers of the causal pathway between child exposure to domestic violence and internalizing behaviors among children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(2), 594-604. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838020965964
Chastain, J. (2004). How Does Witnessing Domestic Violence Affect a Child’s Academic and Behavioral Performance at School? https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1097&context=theses
Di Napoli, I., Procentese, F., Carnevale, S., Esposito, C., & Arcidiacono, C. (2019). Ending intimate partner violence (IPV) and locating men at stake: An ecological approach. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(9), 1652. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/9/1652
Edwards, B. G. (2019). Alarming effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence. Psychology Today. Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/progress-notes/201902/alarming-effects-childrens-exposure-domestic-violence
Forke, C. M., Catallozzi, M., Localio, A. R., Grisso, J. A., Wiebe, D. J., & Fein, J. A. (2019). Intergenerational effects of witnessing domestic violence: Health of the witnesses and their children. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100942. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519301160
Harrison, O. (2021). Statistically Speaking: The Long-Term Effects of Domestic Violence on Children. Child. Legal Rts. J., pp. 41, 63. https://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1232&context=clrj
Ouzounian, Z. (2019). Childhood Witnessing of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Character Development Across Time and Adulthood Relationships (Doctoral dissertation, Antioch University). https://aura.antioch.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1592&context=etds
Pingley, T. (2017). The impact of witnessing domestic violence on children: A systematic review. https://sophia.stkate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1779&context=msw_papers
Plumptre, E. (2021, November 17). How witnessing domestic violence affects children. Verywell Mind. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940
Stiles, M. (2022). Witnessing domestic violence: The effect on children. American Family Physician, 66(11), 2052. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2002/1201/p2052.html
Tsavoussis, A., Stawicki, S. P., Stoicea, N., & Papadimos, T. J. (2014). Child-witnessed domestic violence and its adverse effects on brain development: a call for societal self-examination and awareness. Frontiers in public health, pp. 2, 178. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00178/full
Human Resources Comparison Free Writing Sample
Abstract
The paper analyzes the insurance coverage, wages, and paid time off policies in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Regarding insurance coverage, Japan and the US require employers to contribute to their employees’ health insurance plans, while Japan also requires employers to provide coverage for mental health care, long-term care, and critical illness. Additionally, both countries offer life and disability insurance plans, though the level of coverage varies. Both countries have minimum wage laws in place, and wages are typically determined by the job’s market value and the employee’s skills and experience. However, Japan has higher income tax rates and employee benefits such as maternity and paternity leave, while the US has a flat tax system. Additionally, the US does not require employers to provide paid vacation days, paid holidays, or sick leave, though some states have laws mandating certain benefits. Meanwhile, the UK requires employers to provide employees with vacation days, holidays, sick leave, and additional benefits such as maternity and paternity leave. Finally, the paper provides recommendations for organizations looking to expand into Japan, such as offering similar benefits and wages.
Insurance Coverage
Japan:
Similarities
Employers must contribute to their employees’ health insurance plans in Japan and the US. This contribution typically ranges from 50-75% of the plan’s total cost. For example, in Japan, employers must pay at least 50% of their employees’ health insurance costs (Chen & Xu, 2020). Employers must pay at least 60% of their employees’ health insurance costs in the US. Both countries also offer disability and life insurance plans typically paid for by the employer. In the US, employers usually provide short-term disability insurance, which provides employees partial wages when they cannot work due to an illness or injury. In Japan, employers typically provide disability insurance plans to cover medical expenses and lost wages due to an illness or injury (Chen & Xu, 2020). Also, both nations have life insurance programs that provide financial help to employees’ families in the case of their death.
Differences
The main difference between Japan and the US regarding insurance benefits is the level of coverage. In Japan, employers must provide more comprehensive coverage than in the US (Ebi & Bando, 2019). This includes coverage for mental health, long-term care, and severe illness. In Japan, mental health coverage covers counseling services and treatment for depression and other mental diseases. Long-term care insurance in Japan typically covers care facilities, assisted living facilities, and personal health care. Critical illness coverage in Japan typically covers the cost of cancer, stroke, and heart disease treatments. In the US, employers do not typically provide coverage for these services. In addition to the more comprehensive coverage offered in Japan, employers are also required to provide employees with a pension plan (Chen et al., 2019). This plan provides employees with a monthly income after retirement. The pension amount depends on the employee’s years of service and salary. In the US, employers are not typically required to provide pension plans to their employees.
United Kingdom
Similarities
Organizations in the United Kingdom and the United States provide health insurance, life insurance, disability insurance, vision insurance, and dental insurance. Both countries also offer essential worker’s compensation benefits, which provide financial compensation to employees if they are injured or become ill due to their job (Fisk et al., 2020). These benefits are essential to providing a safe and secure working environment and ensuring that employees can receive medical care and financial support if they become injured or ill. In addition, many companies in both countries also offer additional benefits, such as travel and pet insurance, which can be tailored to employees’ needs (Fisk et al., 2020). Although the specifics of each country’s benefits may differ, the overall goal is to provide employees with the financial security and protection they need.
Differences
The United Kingdom has a more comprehensive set of insurance benefits than the United States. For example, in the UK, employers are legally required to provide employees with a workplace pension plan, which allows them to save for retirement (Cribb & Emmerson, 2019). Private medical insurance, mandated by law for all UK employers, helps pay for expensive out-of-pocket medical expenses. In contrast, while the US does offer some medical insurance benefits, it does not require employers to provide a workplace pension plan. In addition, the UK has more stringent regulations concerning employee safety, which can require employers to provide additional insurance benefits such as accident insurance to protect employees in the event of an accident.
Wages
Japan
In Japan and the US, wages are generally determined by the job’s market value, and minimum wage laws are in place. In Japan, wages are regulated by the government, and the prefecture determines the minimum wage. For example, Tokyo’s minimum wage is 874 yen per hour, while Osaka’s is 823 yen per hour (Hansen, 2022). Also, US law mandates a minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. In both countries, wages are typically determined by the job’s market value, with employers offering salaries and benefits based on the employee’s skills and experience (Edo, 2018). This can include performance-based bonuses and other forms of compensation such as health insurance and paid vacation time. Additionally, employers in both countries may offer additional benefits such as stock options, retirement plans, and other employee incentives. Furthermore, both countries have labor laws to protect employees’ rights. In Japan, the Labor Standards Act governs labor rights and conditions, while in the US; the Fair Labor Standards Act is the primary law governing labor rights and conditions. These laws ensure that employers provide their employees with fair wages and working conditions.
Differences
In the US, wages are primarily determined by the free market, with employers able to adjust salaries based on the availability of labor, the cost of living, and other factors. In Japan, wages are more heavily regulated by the government, with the minimum wage determined by the prefecture. Additionally, Japan has much higher income tax rates than the US, with individuals earning more than 20 million yen per year subject to a maximum tax rate of 55% (Kitao & Mikoshiba, 2022). This may lead organizations to offer higher wages and benefits to attract and retain talent.
Similarities
The UK and the US have some similarities in terms of wages. The National Minimum Wage (NMW) in the United Kingdom is set at £7.50 per hour for those aged 25 and over. This rate is reviewed annually and can be adjusted depending on the economic climate. This rate applies to workers in all industries, including hospitality, retail, construction, and manufacturing. The federal minimum wage in the United States is now $7.25 per hour (Edo, 2018). However, many states have implemented their higher minimum wage rate, with California having the highest minimum wage at $12.00 per hour. In addition to the minimum wage, wages in both countries are primarily determined by the market and the employee’s skill level (Clemens, 2021). In the UK, wages are typically higher in cities such as London, Manchester, and Birmingham than in rural areas. Similarly, in the US, wages are generally higher in urban areas, such as New York City, than in rural areas. Moreover, wages are also determined by the job market regarding the supply and demand for particular skills.
Differences
The main difference between the wage systems in the United Kingdom and the United States is taxation. In the UK, employees are subject to a progressive tax system, where individuals are taxed according to their income level (Gotham et al., 2021). This means that those with higher incomes will be taxed more than those with lower incomes. In the US, the federal government has a flat tax system, where all citizens are subject to the same tax rate irrespective of their income. In addition to the tax system, the two countries differ regarding employee benefits. In the UK, employers must provide certain employee benefits, such as maternity and paternity leave, sick pay, and holiday pay. The federal government does not mandate benefits in the US, though some states have implemented laws requiring employers to provide certain benefits. Moreover, employers in the US may provide additional benefits to employees, such as health insurance, 401(k) contributions, and bonuses.
Paid Time off
Japan
In Japan, the Labor Standard Law requires employers to provide employees with a minimum of 10 days of paid vacation per year and up to 20 days per year for employees who have worked for the same company for at least six consecutive years (Shan & Troshani, 2020). Japanese employers must also provide paid holidays such as New Year’s Day, Respect for the Aged Day, and Health-Sports Day. Employers must also provide employees with paid sick leave, which is usually at least ten days of paid sick leave per year. However, in the US, employers are not required to provide employees with paid vacation days, holidays, or sick leave. However, many companies in the United States provide their workers with paid holidays, paid vacation, and sick days (England et al., 2020). Although federal law does not mandate it, certain states mandate that companies provide paid time off in the form of vacation, holidays, and sick days. For instance, in California, workers are entitled to at least three paid vacation days per year, whereas, in the state of Washington, they are entitled to at least five. Moreover, in the United States, many companies voluntarily provide paid time off for holidays like Memorial Day.
United Kingdom
The primary difference between the paid time off policies in the UK and the US is that the UK requires employers to provide employees with paid time off like vacations, holidays, and sick days; however, the US does not. In the United Kingdom, workers are entitled to 5.6 weeks of paid vacation per year, increasing to 28 days for those who have been with the same company for at least five years (Davies, 2020). Additionally, employers must provide employees with paid holidays, such as Christmas Day. Employers must also provide employees with paid sick leave, which is usually at least seven days of paid sick leave per year. In the US, employers are not required to provide employees with paid vacation days, holidays, or sick leave. However, many employers offer their workers paid holidays, sick days, and vacations. (England et al., 2020). Although no federal law requires employers to offer paid time off, some states mandate that businesses give workers time off for vacation, holidays, and sick days with pay.
Areas of Improvement
Japan
Japan could do better by providing additional benefits such as stock options, retirement plans, and other forms of employee incentives that are more common in the US. Stock options allow providing a discount for employees to purchase a predetermined number of shares in the company. This gives employees a financial stake in the company and encourages loyalty. Retirement plans, such as 401(k) s, allow employees to save for retirement and receive employer contributions. Other employee incentives may include bonuses, flexible work hours, and tuition reimbursement.
United States
The US should provide more comprehensive benefits such as pensions, private medical, and accident insurance. Pensions provide employees with a regular income after retirement and often include employer contributions. Private medical insurance can cover medical services not covered by public health insurance plans, such as specialist and dental care. Workers with accident insurance are safeguarded monetarily in the event of an incident.
United Kingdom
Lastly, the UK could provide additional employee incentives such as stock options and retirement plans, which are more common in the US. Stock options give employees an ownership stake in the company, and retirement plans, such as defined contribution pensions, allow employees to save for retirement. The UK could also benefit from more comprehensive coverage for long-term care and mental health services. Mental health coverage can provide access to counseling, therapy, and medication to treat mental health issues. In contrast, long-term care coverage can help pay for the price of assisted living facilities and nursing homes.
Recommendations
Country to expand
Japan is an ideal market for business expansion due to its highly developed economy and infrastructure. The country has a strong and stable political climate, which has enabled the country to achieve high levels of economic growth (Jiang, 2019). Additionally, Japan’s highly developed healthcare system provides comprehensive insurance benefits to its citizens. The country also has a strong labor market with laws protecting employees’ rights and a culture receptive to foreign businesses. Japan has a long history of innovation and success, with many companies leading technological development (Jiang, 2019). For example, Sony is one of the world’s leading technology companies, and Toyota is one of the world’s leading car manufacturers. Furthermore, the country offers businesses a range of incentives, such as tax breaks, subsidies, and grants to encourage investment. Finally, Japan is a significant trading partner with the US, making it an ideal market for US companies looking to expand globally.
Recommended Benefits and Wage Practices
The organization should consider offering benefits and wages similar to the US when expanding into Japan. This could include health insurance plans, disability and life insurance plans, pension plans, travel insurance, pet insurance, and other employee incentives such as stock options and retirement plans (Chen et al., 2020). These benefits should be tailored to the needs of the workforce in Japan, as well as the needs of the organization. The company might consider paying its Japanese workers a wage that meets or above the bare minimum required by law in each prefecture. The Japanese Labor Standards Law mandates that any company having Japanese employees must provide them with paid holidays, vacation, and sick leave (Chen et al., 2020). In terms of wages, the organization should consider offering its employees in Japan salaries and benefits that align with the job’s market value and the employee’s skills and experience. This could include performance-based bonuses and other forms of compensation such as health insurance and paid vacation time. Additionally, the organization should consider providing its employees in Japan with additional benefits such as stock options, retirement plans, and other employee incentives (Chen et al., 2020). These benefits should be tailored to the needs of the workforce in Japan, as well as the needs of the organization.
References
Chen, C.-fei, Xu, X., Adams, J., Brannon, J., Li, F., & Walzem, A. (2020). When east meets west: Understanding residents’ home energy management system adoption intention and willingness to pay in Japan and the United States. Energy Research & Social Science, 69, 101616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101616
Chen, L., & Xu, X. (2020). effect evaluation of the long-term care insurance (LTCI) system on the health care of the elderly: A review. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, Volume 13, 863–875. https://doi.org/10.2147/jmdh.s270454
Clemens, J. (2021). How do firms respond to minimum wage increases? understanding the relevance of non-employment margins. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.35.1.51
Cribb, J., & Emmerson, C. (2019). What happens to workplace pension saving when employers are obliged to enrol employees automatically? International Tax and Public Finance, 27(3), 664–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10797-019-09565-6
Davies, A. C. L. (2020). Wages and working time in the ‘Gig Economy.’ King’s Law Journal, 31(2), 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/09615768.2020.1790820
Ebi, H., & Bando, H. (2019). Precision oncology and the Universal Health Coverage System in Japan. JCO Precision Oncology, (3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1200/po.19.00291
Edo, A. (2018). The impact of immigration on the labor market. Journal of Economic Surveys, 33(3), 922–948. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12300
England, P., Levine, A., & Mishel, E. (2020). Progress toward gender equality in the United States has slowed or stalled. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(13), 6990–6997. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918891117
Fisk, M., Livingstone, A., & Pit, S. (2020). Telehealth in the context of covid-19: Changing perspectives in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(6). https://doi.org/10.2196/19264
Gotham, D., Moja, L., van der Heijden, M., Paulin, S., Smith, I., & Beyer, P. (2021). Reimbursement models to tackle market failures for antimicrobials: Approaches taken in France, Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Health Policy, 125(3), 296–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2020.11.015
Hansen, P. (2022). Rural emplacements: Linking heterotopia, one health and ikigai in Central Hokkaido. Asian Anthropology, 21(1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/1683478x.2021.2018765
Jiang, Y. (2019). Competitive partners in development financing: China and Japan expanding overseas infrastructure investment. The Pacific Review, 32(5), 778–808. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2019.1569117
Kitao, S., & Mikoshiba, M. (2022). Why women work the way they do in Japan: Roles of fiscal policies. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4054049
Shan, Y. G., & Troshani, I. (2020). Digital Corporate Reporting and value relevance: Evidence from the US and Japan. International Journal of Managerial Finance, 17(2), 256–281. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijmf-01-2020-0018
Impact Of Social Media On Mental Health Sample Assignment
Typically, human beings are social creatures who must communicate to have a normal and progressive life. Therefore, when people are socially connected with others, health concerns such as stress, anxiety, and sorrow are relieved (Karim et al., 2020). Lack of social connection can pose a significant risk to mental health. Today, they rely on different social media platforms to express their feelings about a significant event or a happy moment. In the modern world, many people all over the world are using social media platforms such as Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram, Tiktok, and Facebook to find and connect with friends and family (Braghieri et al., 2022).
In other words, social media has become part of people’s everyday activities. A huge percentage of studies have noted that these social connections significantly affect mental health, which can be negative or positive (Karim et al., 2020). However, increased studies show that social media negatively impacts mental health, and censorship is not a practical solution (Coyne et al., 2020). The proposal will comprehensively focus on how social media significantly affects the U.S. overall mental health and provide a way(s) forward since censorship is not a remedy.
Although increased studies have recognized the good side of social media on mental health, there is also a negative impact. Also, recent debates have increased concerning the benefits and bottleneck of social media and mental health (Karim et al., 2020). According to increased studies, social media users are at high risk for depression, anxiety, loneliness, self-harm, and suicidal ideation (Braghieri et al., 2022). Social media platforms may promote various adverse experiences that deteriorate overall mental health in the country. In this context, mental health refers to a state of wellness where people understand their capacities to solve daily issues, perform well, and significantly contribute to their lives and society (Coyne et al., 2020). Inadequacy about life or appearance is widespread among social media users. For example, viewing photos that a person knows very well they are manipulated may make one feel insecure about their appearance or what is happening with their own life. This triggers dissatisfaction and may lead to stress (Braghieri et al., 2022).
According to Pew Research Center, around 68% of adults and 81% of teens in the United States use social media. As such, it subjects a large population to an increased risk of developing negative aspects that reduce overall mental health (Coyne et al., 2020). Therefore, when a large number of people use social media, there is a fear of missing which has a negative impact on mental health. People on various social platforms exacerbate feelings that others are having a good time and living better lives than others (Valkenburg, 2022). Such ideas impact mental health, and an individual may feel low self-esteem, trigger anxiety, fuel effective social media use, such as addiction, and spend many hours a day on social media (Karim et al., 2020). Fear of missing out makes an individual take much time on various social media platforms to the extent of failing to eat and sleep and prioritizing media interaction over genuine world relationships such as meet-ups (Braghieri et al., 2022).
Isolation is another negative issue triggered by social media and has a substantial adverse impact on mental health. People on Facebook, Snapchat, and Instagram post the status of their relationships to show how they are happy with their lives (Braghieri et al., 2022). Lacking such settings or opportunities makes one feel lonely, which decreases overall well-being. Depression and anxiety are mental health conditions affecting many Americans due to social media browsing (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020). Face-to-face is considered a way human beings maintain mental health. Stress is highly reduced when people engage in eye-to-eye contact with someone caring. Prioritizing social media interaction triggers risks of exacerbating anxiety and depression disorders (Naslund et al., 2020). Research studies support that social isolation substitutes face-to-face social interaction by subjecting people to unrealistic or distorted portrayals of life connections, resulting in social isolation feeling(s).
Cyberbullying and self-absorption are more likely to happen in the U.S. when a person uses various social media platforms (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020). Cyberbullying is a serious health issue affecting young victims and their families in the United States. It can spread hurtful messages, abuse, and unhealthy self-centeredness and distance an individual from real-life connections, which decreases wellness and well-being (Valkenburg, 2022). Also, cyberbullying on social media has a negative effect on mental health. It causes health issues, such as elevated stress and anxiety, depression, violent acts, and low self-worth. Other concerns, such as long-standing emotional impacts, are experienced even if cyberbullying is stopped on social media platforms.
Another vital study evidence has found that having many friends on social media does not mean a person has a better social life (Naslund et al., 2020). in upholding a stable friendship, the brain can only handle a few friends in actual social interaction, not virtual ones. As such, it implies that feeling socially connected virtually on a social media platform does not work. Loneliness is connected to myriad health and mental health issues, including death; therefore, getting actual socialization support is critical (Valkenburg, 2022). Virtual friend time does not have a therapeutic impact as a time formed by real friends.
Another way social media has negatively impacted mental health is jealousy. People always perceive seeing others on tropical occasions and well-behaved children as envy-inducing (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2022). In several studies examining the link between jealousy and social media, jealousy was prevalent with another negative feeling while using Facebook (Naslund et al., 2020). Facebook also triggered the formation of invidious feelings, translating it into a vicious cycle. Envy mediates social media platforms-depression connection (Naslund et al., 2020).
In summation, social media platform has a negative impact on U.S. mental health at an individual and collective level. Depression, anxiety, loneliness, self-harm, and suicidal thought are the most common adverse effect linked with social media. Also, cyberbullying, self-absorption, and thinking delusions are possible adverse effects of social media on mental health.
Therefore, there is a need to treat social media with caution due to all these mental health concerns since censorship is not a solution. Awareness through campaigns on modifying social media use to improve mental health can be helpful. We must recognize how important social media has been in other areas, such as conducting business, meetings, and accessing information. When social media platform is used appropriately, it is possible to relieve health issues such as anxiety and depression, which reduces mental health. This implies that social media should be used in moderation to cushion the negative effects.
References
Abi-Jaoude, E., Naylor, K. T., & Pignatiello, A. (2020). Smartphones, social media use, and youth mental health. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192(6), E136-E141. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190434
Braghieri, L., Levy, R., & Makarin, A. (2022). Social media and mental health. American Economic Review, 112(11), 3660-3693. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20211218
Coyne, S. M., Rogers, A. A., Zurcher, J. D., Stockdale, L., & Booth, M. (2020). Does time spent using social media impact mental health?: An eight-year longitudinal study. Computers in Human Behavior, p. 104, 106160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106160
Karim, F., Oyewande, A., Abdalla, L. F., Chaudhry Ehsanullah, R., & Khan, S. (2020). Social media use and its connection to mental health: A systematic review. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8627
Naslund, J. A., Bondre, A., Torous, J., & Aschbrenner, K. A. (2020). Social media and mental health: Benefits, risks, and opportunities for research and practice. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science, 5(3), 245-257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-020-00134-x
Valkenburg, P. M. (2022). Social media use and well-being: What we know and what we need to know. Current Opinion in Psychology, 45, 101294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.006