Introduction
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is among the world’s most common neurodevelopmental disorders. In this context, substantial growing trends in the frequency of ADHD diagnosis and treatment cases were registered across the globe. For its main reasons, the research includes a different approach to its diagnosis previously and nowadays, changes in populations’ attitudes toward ADHD, and the influence of social media. Consequently, it is necessary to define which reasons contribute to the trend the most to address it adequately.
Background Information
ADHD can be described as a neurobehavioral disorder represented by excessive inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and carelessness that are often age-inappropriate, impairing, and pervasive. ADHD symptomatology derives from emotional dysregulation and executive dysfunction. In children, the inability to stay focused may result in poor performance at school. In turn, adults’ hyperactivity is typically replaced by inner restlessness, which often causes them to compensate for their impairments by developing coping skills. Another common symptom is hyperfocus: people with ADHD are often capable of maintaining intense and surprisingly prolonged attention for problems they find enjoyable or rewarding despite failing to focus on other cases. The exact causes of ADHD are unknown in most cases, however, genetic factors play an important role.
Trend’s Discussion
ADHD diagnosis among children and their adolescent counterparts has vastly increased over the last decades. Regarding the parent-reported cases of children (ages 4-17) in the US, there has been an increase in prevalence from roughly 8% in 2003 to 11% in 2011(Davidovitch et al., 2017). However, considering the total population, the bulk of ADHD diagnoses became five times more frequent – from two out of a thousand patients in 1999 to almost 11 in 2010 (Zhu et al., 2017). The trend of increasing frequency in ADHD diagnosis can be seen worldwide: cases of ADHD diagnosis increased from 5% in 2007 to roughly 7% in 2012 (Davidovitch et al., 2017). For instance, in Sweden, the annual count of ADHD-diagnosed people in the population was one out of a thousand in 2006, increasing to almost five in 2011 (Giacobini et al., 2018). Overall, the trend of ADHD diagnosis increase has become apparent and, thus, requires a more thorough investigation.
Unfortunately, there is no unity in opinions on the causes of increased ADHD diagnosis rates. One possible explanation can be either an underdiagnosis in previous decades or an overdiagnosis in the present. For instance, Fairman et al. (2020) draw their evidence from the changes in the medical field concerning this particular disorder. Mainly, the changes occurred in ADHD formulations and diagnosis guidelines for children, adolescents, and adults. Firstly, the age range has been broadened for children and adolescents. Secondly, the number of criteria needed for diagnosing ADHD in adolescent and adult categories has been reduced. Lastly, the ADHD symptomatology has been modified for the cases of individuals 18 years old and older.
Another cause lies in people’s psychology regarding ADHD. According to Davidovitch et al. (2017), the attitude toward ADHD and associated medication from the parental perspective has changed over the last decades. There are registered cases when parents who have not received an ADHD diagnosis for their child start to seek other practitioners to repeat the evaluation (Davidovitch et al., 2017). The logic behind such a tendency is that the parents began associating ADHD medication with the possibility of stimulating the children’s academic performance.
Lastly, one possible cause can be the children’s increased exposure to various mass media sources. Beyens et al. (2018) characterize the nature of contemporary screen media means of entertainment as “violent, arousing, and fast-paced” and imply the reciprocal relationship between children’s media use and ADHD-related behaviors. They studied indirect (program pacing, violent content), conditional (susceptibility), and transactional (preferences as a cause or consequence) media effects on children but found only little statistical evidence of reciprocity (Beyens et al., 2018). In a further study from 2020, the same collective dived deeper into the transactional media effects. The results showed that children with progressing ADHD are likelier to prefer violent media (Beyens et al., 2020). However, the researchers could still not provide definite proof of media effects causing ADHD development.
Trend’s Evaluation
Overall, based on the first two reasons, it is highly probable that the sheer increase in ADHD evaluation cases has ultimately caused the discussed trend. In the case of the practitioners’ attitude, their diagnosis relies mainly on education and practice. They have to adhere to the American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines, but it is challenging to examine how closely the guidelines are followed. Moreover, an ADHD diagnosis does not require extensive documentation of the disorder’s criteria compared to, for example, the autistic spectrum; thus, it can be diagnosed more easily (Davidovitch et al., 2017). In the case of the parental attitude, it is genuinely possible that the purposeful search for the “right” practitioner will eventually achieve its goal. However, the point concerning exposure to media failed to prove its contribution to the trend. While future research on the topic might provide more solid evidence, contemporary studies can only confirm violent media preference among children is the consequence, not the cause of ADHD-related behaviors.
Conclusion
Among the possible explanations for the increase in ADHD diagnoses, diagnostic approach changes and shifts in the population’s perceptions prove to be more probable than the media influence. The increased diagnostical age range, greater simplicity of the diagnostic process, and the patients’ misbeliefs increase the raw number of evaluations for ADHD, which in turn causes the respective growth in the disorder’s positive diagnoses. In other words, the overall attitude toward ADHD can be considered the main reason for the discussed trend; therefore, changing the attitude might help address the issue.
References
Beyens, I., Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2018). Screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(40), 9875-9881.
Beyens, I., Piotrowski, J. T., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2020). Which came first? Assessing transactional relationships between children’s violent media use and ADHD-related behaviors. Communication Research, 47(8), 1228-1245.
Davidovitch, M., Koren, G., Fund, N., Shrem, M., & Porath, A. (2017). Challenges in defining the rates of ADHD diagnosis and treatment: Trends over the last decade. BMC pediatrics, 17(1), 1-9.
Fairman, K. A., Peckham, A. M., & Sclar, D. A. (2020). Diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in the United States: Update by gender and race. Journal of attention disorders, 24(1), 10-19.
Giacobini, M., Medin, E., Ahnemark, E., Russo, L. J., & Carlqvist, P. (2018). Prevalence, patient characteristics, and pharmacological treatment of children, adolescents, and adults diagnosed with ADHD in Sweden. Journal of attention disorders, 22(1), 3-13.
Zhu, Y., Liu, W., Li, Y., Wang, X., & Winterstein, A. G. (2018). Prevalence of ADHD in publicly insured adults. Journal of attention disorders, 22(2), 182-190.
Comparison Of Rip Van Winkle And Young Goodman Brown
One of the aspects that are similar in stories that happened both to Winkle and Brown is that the culmination of events happens concerning them falling asleep. Winkle meets a man who is dressed in old clothes and goes to an amphitheater with him. When the man suggests a drink, he chugs it and falls into a deep sleep, which eventually turned out to last for twenty years. In the journey that happened to Brown, the moment when he falls asleep is not described. He sees that the whole village, including his wife, is in the dark cult and then wakes up in the forest. Therefore, in comparison, these parts of their stories are similar.
Whereas Winkle wakes up to see the changes that happened to his life, Brown wakes up to see that nothing happened. When Winkle comes back to the village, he sees that everything is slightly different, and even the pub where he hung out with his friend in front of has a different name. “The very village was altered: it was larger and more populous” (Washington, n.d.). Unlike him, Brown seemed to expect that everybody from the village is in a dark cult, but when he comes back, he sees no changes, as the residents are engaged in their usual activities and show no signs of being people who assist the devil. These aspects of their journeys are the primary difference between the stories.
Winkle is changed by his journey, mostly in terms of his age, as there are not many changes in his personality after he slept for twenty years. His life seems to become even happier as he retires and does not work at his farm anymore, and is still able to spend time with his friends and family. Brown, on the other hand, was changed by his journey dramatically. He woke up suspecting everybody of assisting the devil and was never happy again after his dream. “A stern, a sad, a darkly meditative, a distrustful, if not a desperate man did he become from the night of that fearful dream” (Hawthorne, n.d.). This contrasts with his living a normal and happy life before this event occurred.
References
Washington, I. (n.d.). Rip Van Winkle. Web.
Hawthorne, N. (n.d.). Young Goodman Brown. Web.
The Harm The Oil Sector Imposes On The World
Introduction
The oil sector has brought more substantial harm than benefits to the world. Since oil was first produced commercially in the mid-19th century in the USA, the global oil rush has left more damage to humanity than benefits. For decades, oil has been fundamental in fuelling our motor vehicles and other engines and producing goods in either industrial or home settings. The value of oil has led to wars between nations, while oil shortages have the potential to bring down economies. As oil exploration and extraction companies and governments record vast earnings through the sector, it becomes crucial to understand the harm the oil sector brings to the world.
The oil sector and its impact
Bloodshed and environmental degradation from oil production affect nearly any oil-producing country. From the Iran-Iraq war and the Chaco War to US wars in Iraq, oil remains a crucial driver for bloodshed worldwide. While discussing the provision of clean water, Vice President Harris acknowledged that nations have fought over oil for years (Borba, 2021). This statement echoes the evident evil brought by the need to control oil production, transportation, regulation, or consumption. During the First World War, oil control was decisive in battles between nations as oil was crucial in fuelling warships, trucks, and tanks. Upon the end of the war in 1944, leaders recognized the increasing significance of oil.
Leaders like Churchill and Roosevelt swiftly signed the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement between the US and the UK to share the Middle Eastern Oil. This agreement set the stage for the 1990 Gulf War, which resulted when Iraq invaded Kuwait to capture and control its oil fields. Kuwait and Iraq had disputed the ownership of various oil fields and territories for an extended period. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, setting over 700 Kuwait oil fields on fire (Forces Network, 2021). When diplomatic talks failed to yield peace, the US and other 38 nations formed a coalition against Iraq. The fatalities and environmental damage from this war reveal the extent of harm oil has had over decades.
Both the opposition and the US-led allied forces suffered heavy casualties during the Gulf War. The Forces Network (2021) reveals that due to direct enemy action, the allied forces lost around 250 personnel while Iraqi soldiers who died during the war are estimated to be 20,000 to 35,000. Additionally, the source reveals that civilian death from the war is estimated to be around 100,000 to 200,000 (The Forces Network, 2021). An Iraq provocative Scud missile attack against allied nations like Saudi Arabia and Israel in Saudi Arabia is reported to have led to the death of 28 US soldiers while injuring more than 100 soldiers as reported by The Forces Network (2021). The effects of the Gulf War indicate how oil harms the environment and causes injury and death to people as they struggle to control the oil supply.
The discovery of oil does not necessarily indicate better living conditions and stability. Oil is a crucial catalyst for conflict across different regions and communities. For instance, a study by Ukaogo and Ogechi (2020) that examines the economic transition and the associated effect of the discovery of oil in the Niger Delta is worrying. According to the study’s findings, the discovery of oil in the Niger Delta brought damning impacts on the local communities. The Niger Delta conflict, which arose in the 1990s, resulted from friction between the local minority ethnic groups in Niger Delta and the foreign oil corporations. As oil corporations collaborated with the ruling elite, new alliances and interests worsened the situation. The state has been accused of using its resources to coerce the communities and provide protection and access to the foreign firms in what appears to be an undeclared war against the oil-bearing communities. As these groups felt exploited, it led to the formation and militarization of regional militia groups.
As violence persists in the Niger delta, it is necessary to understand how oil further contributes to harm. Oil pollution within the Niger Delta has led to the depletion of fish and water resources for the coastal communities. These communities have traditionally relied on these resources for their livelihoods. Gas flaring, oil spills, and different activities from the oil companies have significantly degraded marine and land resources. As oil extraction continues, the local communities blame the foreign companies and the Nigerian government as they feel they are not adequately compensated. This situation has led to conflict between the communities and the government, the foreign oil corporations, and within the communities. As war ravages, the Niger Delta, oil corporations, and the elite class continue to profit at the cost of the environment and the local communities.
Oil has not only led to wars between nations and militia among communities but also led to the development and funding of terror groups. A classic example is the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) rise. Most of Iraq’s enormous oil fields are located in Shiite Southern regions in Iraq, while lower deposits are found within the borderlands of the Kurdish region. As Sunnis revolted against the Shiite central government over the sharing of oil revenues, a denial of achievement of full federalism weakened the government. This situation led to losing de facto control of the Nineveh and Anbar regions to the Sunni militia and al-Qaeda outfits.
The conflict further merged with the Syrian Civil War, which sought to oust the Bashar al-Assad regime leading to the emergence of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). A review by Le Billon (2021) states that the capture of Jabhat al-Nusra marked the declaration of the formation of ISIS. This strategic location helped ISIS capture the Syrian oil fields in Deir Ez-Zor. The economy of the ISIS terror organization was funded from oil; at its epitome in 2015, the ISIS-controlled an estimated 1,00 000 km2 of territory in Syria and Iraq (Le Billon, 2021). The terror group organized these territories and controlled refineries, pipelines, oil and gas fields, and tanker routes. The true evil of oil is evident as prominent terror organizations like ISIS continue to harm governments, civilians, and the environment.
Accidents affecting Oil and gas pipelines or storage facilities represent one-way oil directly results in a civilian fatality, injury, or environmental damage. Some of the leading causes of these accidents include; vehicle accidents, natural force damage, vandalism, corrosion, material/weld failure, acts of terrorism, sabotage, loss of equipment, or poor operation. According to an analysis by Biezma et al, (2020), Nigeria’s 1998 oil and gas pipeline transportation accident was the most gruesome in history. The accident claimed 1078 fatalities after a leakage in the pipeline burst into flames as villagers scavenged for fuel; these accidents have resulted in over 4000 deaths (Biezma et al, 2022). Motor vehicle accidents during oil transportation are the leading causes of fatality resulting from the sector.
The evils brought by the oil sector do not only result in death and environmental degradation but also result in Dutch disease. The Dutch disease refers to a concept where rapid development of one industry, particularly oil and natural gas, results in a decline of the sectors. The Dutch disease hurts the agricultural and local manufacturing sectors as exports become more expensive while the domestic production cost rises (Pettinger, 2018). This inflation hurts the communities not sharing the oil compensation. Countries whose manufacturing and agricultural sectors have been damaged by the disease include Algeria, Nigeria, Venezuela, Ecuador, Trinidad, and Colombia. Though an economy can benefit from oil revenue streams, the negative impacts that it might have on the agriculture and manufacturing sector can often affect the poor in society.
Corruption poses a threat to the political and economic development of any nation. A corrupt society lacks integrity, accountability, leadership, trust, transparency, and equity. When a community lacks these moral values, the risk of chaos and anarchy is inevitable. Corruption leads to theft of revenues meant for social services and programs, capital flight, and human rights abuse. The oil sector has been associated with high cases of corruption. When corruption prevails, different organs of the government cannot function effectively. Major oil-producing nations experience high corruption cases that have affected governance and livelihoods. According to an article by Al Jazeera, oil in Iraq is the leading reason why corruption is deeply rooted in the nation (Saeed, 2019). The nation loses billions of revenues to corruption that only benefits the elite class at the expense of most ordinary Iraqis. Oil’s ruling elite is empowered to undermine the judiciary and evade accountability. The prevalence of immersing corruption in Iraq weakened the government, leading to the spring of mass protests in the south and center of Iraq.
The collapse of oil prices in recent years has exposed another threat that oil poses to humanity. As prices dropped, Middle Eastern nations adopted oil in a trade war to hurt other oil-supplying countries. The global recession led to a fall in oil demand; however, the Arab oil-producing nations maintained their production levels while allowing the prices to fall. This move was to damage rival USA oil frackers, North Sea Oil, and Russian oil companies who rely on high oil prices to remain profitable. In the recent past, the Russian attack on Ukraine led to skyrocketing oil prices. Russia is using its oil revenue streams to fund its invasion of Ukraine (CBS News, 2022). Though the US and the majority of European nations have sanctioned Russia, the country is still exporting the majority of its oil through other networks.
Conclusion
Nations like the US and other European countries are moving away from relying on oil. The transition to other fuels or energy sources to run vehicles, industries, and home use is evident as these nations seek to lessen the influence of hostile oil-producing nations. Oil has led to wars between nations, conflict in communities, development of militia and terror groups. Through oil, corruption has taken root in the society, which has led to poor governance, poor growth, abuse of human rights, and class difference. The ambition to transition to other fuel sources can be an essential step toward restoring peace, development, integrity, and accountability in society. Through the adoption of different sources of energy, we not only support better environmental protection but also take a broad initiative in eradicating the evils propagated by oil.
References
Biezma, M. V., Andrés, M. A., Agudo, D., & Briz, E. (2020). Most fatal oil & gas pipeline accidents through history: A lessons learned approach. Engineering Failure Analysis, 110, 104446. Web.
Borba, A. (2021). Vice president Kamala Harris warns of looming ‘wars fought over water’. CBS News. Web.
CBS News. (2022). Oil and energy expert Mark Finley on global effects of russia’s war in Ukraine – “Intelligence matters”. CBS News. Web.
Forces Network. (2021). Remembering the Gulf War: Key Facts and figures about the conflict. Forces Network. Web.
Le Billon, P. (2021). Oil and the islamic state: Revisiting “resource wars” arguments in light of ISIS operations and state-making attempts. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–23. Web.
Pettinger, T. (2018). Dutch disease. Economics Help. Web.
Saeed, Y. (2019). The KRG’s anti-corruption effort must start from its oil sector. Kurds | Al Jazeera. Web.
Ukaogo, V., & Ogechi, N. (2020). Two oils, one evil: An appraisal of contemporary dilemma of the indigenous population of Nigeria’s oil-delta communities, 1956-2019. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 12(5). Web.