Introduction
Management comprises various theories, schools and directions. Management entails organization and direction of duties dependent on specific job context. Management theories define ways in which individuals can be organized and productive in the performance of workplace duties. In addition, theories of management synchronize workplaces with the aim of attainment of common goals. This essay highlights the classical and contingency schools of thoughts. The mentioned approaches have indicated the most significant impact in the management field. The essay provides an account of the classical writers, contingency school and relays the impact of the theories on managerial thought.
Classical Theory
The classical management theory was developed by Henry Fayol, Max Weber and Fredrick Taylor. The approach comprises three streams, namely, bureaucracy, administrative theory and scientific management.
Bureaucracy
Max Weber was a German sociologist who provided a bureaucratic model for management in complex organisations. Bureaucracy was then considered the most efficient form for large and complex organisations. The essential elements include a hierarchy of authority, standardisation of methods, division of labor and employee selection and promotion (Akintayo and Uzohue, 2016, p. 12). A bureaucratic organization has characteristics such as well-defined authority, division of labor by specialization, impersonal employee relations, systematic procedures that deal with work situations and a system of rules that cover employee rights and duties. Bureaucracy is crucial since it ensures consistency in employee behavior, eliminates conflict in the performance of duties and provides maximum utilization of human resources within organisations. However, bureaucratic organisations contain disadvantages such as excessive paperwork, employee resistance to change and inhibited initiative and growth among workers.
Administrative Theory
Henri Fayol is described as the father of modern management. Henri Fayol established the pattern of management with concepts such as the unity of command, a span of control, authority responsibility, departmentation and pyramidal organisational form. Fayol stressed on the basic applicability of management principals. In addition, the engineer established that technical ability dominates in lower management level whereas managerial capacity dominates in higher management levels (Bakogianni, 2016, p. 96). Fayol established a managerial philosophy with three categories of elements of management, principles of management and managerial training and qualities. Managerial training and qualities involved physical qualities such as sound health, mental attributes such as wisdom, moral qualities such as integrity and general knowledge and experience. The contributions of Fayol and Taylor are complementary since they possess the realization that managerial and personnel problems were the keys to industrial success (Sulieman, 2019, p. 17). Besides, the theories applied scientific methods while addressing the mentioned problems.
Scientific Management
Fredrick Taylor revolutionized plant management leading to the development of time and refined wage incentives. The theory primarily describes a scientific study of work by managers as a means of identifying the best ways of getting the job done. The approach provides a foundation for industrial engineering. Taylor championed the securing of maximum prosperity for both employers and employees. Consequently, the theory encourages appropriate training of staff and increased productivity through reduced labor (Chin, 2017, p. 12721). The theory contains principles such as task idea where the productivity of staff is dependent on the provision of favorable conditions. The theory contains more principles such as proper use of equipment, division of labor, planning, experiments, cost accounting and healthy factory atmosphere.
The classical theory of management is criticized for overlooking employee needs within the work environment. Furthermore, the argument ignores human error in work output (Olum, 2019, p. 40). The classical theory portrays strong influence on modern operations. Moreover, the approach is tough and rigid in nature. The attainment of theory objectives such as productivity are at the expense of human relations and creativity. However, the theory has effectively improved the productivity and efficiency of personnel in organisations that have successfully adopted the theory. Thus, classical theory seeks to provide a better working environment in the form of increased wages and incentives.
Contingency Theory
The contingency theory forms an integral part of management theory since it provides a comparison of the two approaches. The theory stipulates that the internal subsystems in an organization establish a perfect structure for organisational success. In addition, the structures in an organization dictate the relationship between the company and its employees (Mills and McKimm, 2016, p. 270). The theory is relevant to the effectiveness of personnel. Organisational structures are dependent on managers, employees and vary from organization to organization. The theory further explains that reduced supervision improves the relationship between a company and employees thereby leading to the development of creative roles.
Fielder points out the correlation between the traits of a leader and the effectiveness of the organization. The theory further points out that the characteristics of leaders should be variant dependent on situations at hand. Furthermore, employee behaviorisms and attitudes are contingent on altered circumstances. The contingency theory is in practice in many organisations all over the world. Organisations vary strategies in use to adequately accommodate challenging situations even in the future (Peretomode, 2012, p. 15). The contingency theory provides management with a variety of options through which the organisations react to problems. Thus, the theory offers discretion throughout the process of decision making. Organisations that adopt contingency theory permit management to bend and override policies dependent on circumstances at hand. The contingency theory is inadequate in that it fails to provide a variety of actions that would be undertaken in different scenarios.
Differences
The classical theory focuses on the internal systems of an organization, while contingency theory focuses on the external dynamics of an organization. The contingency theory acts as a complement to the classical approach. The contingency theory provides additional information covering the deficiencies of the classical theory. Moreover, the classical theory addresses universal principles applicable in all situations, while the contingency theory focuses on the remedy. The contingency theory is results-oriented. The classical theory focuses on interrelationships, while the contingency theory focuses on situational variables. In addition, the classical theory has a simple approach as compared to the complex contingency theory.
Conclusion
The classical theory of management emphasizes employee efficiency and improved organisational productivity through quantitative methods. The approach adopts the assumption that personnel have economic and physical wants while disregarding employee social wants. On the other hand, contingency theory explains that the effectiveness of management is dependent on behaviorisms. The classical viewpoint is rational since it relates to the application of scientific methods in boosting organisational productivity. The classical theory is relevant in modern-day. Besides, the theory is in use in many organisations with modifications. On the other hand, the contingency theory is used in the determination of appropriate candidates for specific job requirements.
Reference List
- Akintayo, O. and Uzohue, C. (2016) ‘Wait for your time’ concept in management practice in the Nigerian terrain: appraising and critique of classical management theories’, British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 16(2), pp.1-13.
- Bakogianni, A. (2016) ‘What is so ‘classical’ about classical reception? Theories, methodologies and future prospects’, CODEX – Revista de Estudos Clássicos, 4(1), pp.96.
- Chin, T. (2017) ‘Harmonious leadership: a yin-yang harmony approach to integrate western contingency theories’, Academy of Management Proceedings, 2017(1), pp.12721.
- Mills, J. and McKimm, J. (2016) ‘Contingency theories of leadership: how might we use them in clinical practice?’, British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 77(5), pp.268-271.
- Olum, Y. (2019) ‘Contextualizing classical and contemporary management theories in African society’, Information and Knowledge Management, 9(7), pp. 23-57.
- Peretomode, D. (2012) ‘Situational and contingency theories of leadership: are they the same?’, IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 4(3), pp.13-17.
- Sulieman, M. (2019) ‘Roots of organizational knowledge in classical management theories: a literature review’, International Journal of Business and Social Science, 10(10), pp.12-19.
Essay Voice-over
Hamlet’s Universality And Contemporary Cultural Discourse
Measuring the literary value of a text is a complex process. The worth of a piece of literature to human civilization is a notion that, for instance, the postmodernist worldview negates, as well as the need for literary idols. Nevertheless, some texts became deeply ingrained in social consciousness as those that transcend time and tastes of public and critics. Those texts can usually be found in the section of classic books or school syllabi. Their importance may be presupposed, and as a result, understanding limited. Hamlet is one of such texts – the play constitutes a part of the Western canon and presents numerous opportunities for critical analysis, which may render doubting the greatness of the play a risky affair. Despite the possible arguments surrounding Hamlet, a number of reasons that make it essential for syllabi around the world, particularly in occidental countries, exist.
This Shakespeare’s play investigates several problems of human existence – the extent of these issues and their acuteness surpasses the protagonist embodying them. As the principal conflict revolves around the protagonist’s desire to avenge his father, it reveals the elements of this struggle, which are seemingly familiar to the majority of individuals. Grief, doubt, and dysfunctional familial relationships are themes that drive the play’s plot, and simultaneously, engage a reader with their universality. Additionally, to the ubiquity of the issues found in the play, Hamlet allows their in-depth examination in five acts. The protagonist’s relationships with Gertrude show the complexity that mother-son relationships can have – the interplay between love, a sense of Gertrude’s betrayal, and Hamlet’s pretended madness complicate mutual understanding. In the third act, Hamlet expresses his concerns, “mother, you have my father much offended” (Shakespeare 2003, 134). Gertrude’s decision to remarry relatively shortly after the death of Hamlet’s father did not diminish the protagonist’s love, as he carefully planned to prevent her possible death. The ease with which readers can relate to the play’s characters through the universality of their emotions may be one of the primary reasons for the play’s popularity.
Hamlet is a resource for other works of literature and films that position the play’s secondary characters as their primary, which serves as a testament to its capacity for emotional impact. Films such as Ophelia and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead exemplify this phenomenon. Among other characters, Ophelia could be viewed as prototypical to some extent, since she represents a woman driven to insanity by unreciprocated love. Her death, possibly, is considered one of the most impactful, apropos of which a priest states, “Her death was doubtful / And, but that great command o’ ersways the order, / She should in ground unsanctified been lodged” (Shakespeare 2003, 200). Therefore, Hamlet is a piece of literature containing characters that overstep the play’s boundaries and infiltrate other texts.
The issues that constitute a thematic frame in Hamlet make it a philosophical piece of literature. Several trends and views in the field can be explored by reading the play. Hamlet’s indecisiveness and persistent need to brood are among the principal recurrent motifs in the play, emphasizing its philosophical essence. At one moment Hamlet proclaims “why then ’tis none to you; for there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison” (Shakespeare 2003, 72). The phrase may imply the protagonist’s inclination towards moral relativism or that continuous reflection about an issue, Claudius’ murder, in this case, can deprive of one’s resolution to act. Indecisiveness may be named the protagonist’s core attribute. The extent to which it distinguishes him from others is difficult to overestimate – Hamlet is a prototypical figure for other deep thinkers in literature.
The wide acceptance that the play gained and its ongoing reinterpretations may not be reduced to the importance of one character; nevertheless, a number of the protagonists’ characteristics contributed to its popularity. In addition to Hamlet’s excessive reflective quality, philosophical nature of his thought process, and the universality of his emotions despite the peculiarity of circumstances, the protagonist inspires hope for the prevalence of human virtues. Hamlet’s surroundings are unreliable, the number of people whom he can trust is limited, and his actions in several cases are dubious from the standpoint of high morality, especially regarding Ophelia. The character may be perceived as the one who embodies the most fully the conflicts of human nature. Hamlet’s thoughtfulness, loyalty, bravery, and sharp-mind, in some instances, are eclipsed by cynicism, disgust, and hatred. This duality could be inherent to the human condition and is crystallized in the protagonist.
Moreover, reading the play is vital to navigating in contemporary cultural discourse and for being able to interpret other literary works that were produced after. A web of relations exists between texts, and it surpasses historical time – these intertextual associations can be expressed in the form of allusions, parodies, or even direct quotes. Hamlet influenced several authors whose contribution to the world literature is colossal and found reflection in their works, for instance, parts of James Joyce’s Ulysses directly address the Shakespeare’s work under consideration (Schwarz 2016). The list of texts that, in some way, were impacted by Hamlet or contain evident or more obscured references is rather long. Being able to grasp a texts’ essence without understanding the play first may be complicated. Therefore, Hamlet is interconnected with an array of other texts that necessitate reading the play for their comprehensive analysis.
Outside of the realm of books, other fields also profited from the play’s production. Figurative art, for example, is of the domains that found new motifs – a number of visual representations of the play’s characters and events were produced since its first staging and publication. Ophelia’s character in this regard seems to be particularly impactful, as it led to the creation of Millais’s famed painting. Similarly, understanding films that, to a certain degree, were inspired by the text would also be obstructed, if a reader is not aware of the play’s plot. Even though the depth of such pop-cultural references may not be substantial in some cases, and knowing the play in detail is not crucial for their overall understanding, reading Hamlet is essential. In this case, to be able to appreciate the extent to which works are interwoven in the cultural discourse.
The play in question serves as a significant part of classical world literature and Western canon. Its inclusion in the syllabus seems significant for students’ ability to navigate and analyze other classical texts, connections between them, and art outside of literature. Furthermore, universal characters struggling with problems of human existence are present in the play. The concept of a culturally educated person, even though sometimes overvalued, requires reading and in-depth understanding of Hamlet.
References
Schwarz, Daniel R. 2016. Reading Joyce’s Ulysses. NYC.: Springer.
Shakespeare, William. 2003. Hamlet (The Annotated Shakespeare). London: Yale University Press.
Case Review: Marbury V. Madison
There are many landmark cases in the United States that are still being referred to by courts today. One of those cases is the Marbury v. Madison court case. The case established that the judicial department has absolute power to review any laws passed in the country and determine whether they comply with the U.S. Constitution. This essay will present a short overview of the case and discuss its importance.
The Marbury v. Madison court case is one of the oldest and most substantial court cases in the United States. The case dates back to 1801, when President Adams recommended 52 candidates for various positions in judicial offices at the very end of his presidential term (Ray 210). These nominations were a last-minute move to prevent the next President, Jefferson, filling the available positions with the loyalists of his party (Ray 210). Although most of the nominees were granted positions in various judicial offices, several commissions were not delivered (Ray 210). After the inauguration of Jefferson, the undelivered commissions were disregarded completely (Ray 210). Thus, President Jefferson’s decision not to allow the commissions of Adams’s appointees to be delivered led to the Marbury v. Madison court case.
This prompted the appointed candidates to appeal to the Supreme Court for their commissions to be delivered (Ray 210).
One of those candidates was William Marbury, who argued that he has a constitutional right to this appointment and that Secretary of State at the time, James Madison, should approve his candidacy (Ray 210). Although the court agreed that Marbury had the right to his appointment, it found that the Act that allowed Marbury to appeal to the court violated Article VI of the Constitution (Ray 211). It was declared that no law should be above the country’s Constitution, with Marbury losing the case (Ray 211). This, the case set an important precedent for the judicial department to be able to review laws to establish whether they comply with the Constitution.
The Marbury v. Madison case was selected for this essay due to its undeniable significance to the United States history. Its implications are numerous and critical to the protection of constitutional rights. If constitutional rights are to be accepted as the uppermost rights in a country, there should not be a precedent of ordinary laws overruling the Constitution. The primary outcome of the case was the formation of the judicial review principle that is still being adhered to today (Ray 210). The court case led to the Constitution being proclaimed as the most important legal document in the country. If any law passed by the Parliament is found to contradict the Constitution or it undermines citizens’ constitutional rights, it can be overturned by the Supreme Court. The American legal history was, in many ways, shaped by the Marbury v. Madison case. One of the examples of the precedent set by the case used in court proceedings is the United States v. Nixon case when the Supreme Court ruled against the then President Nixon (“U.S. V. Nixon: Summary of the Decision”). This ruling was of great significance as it showed that the head of government is not above the law.
In conclusion, the Marbury v. Madison case can be called one of the most important court cases in the history of the United States. It instituted the principle of judicial review, stating that no law in the country can contradict the Constitution. It also granted the judicial department power to review and strike down any legislation passed in the country if they do not comply with the Constitution.
Works Cited
Ray, Clyde. “John Marshall, Marbury v. Madison, and the Construction of Constitutional Legitimacy.” Law, Culture and the Humanities, vol. 15, no. 1, 2019, pp. 205-226.
“U.S. V. Nixon: Summary of the Decision.” Landmark Supreme Court Cases, 2020, Web.