The given analysis will primarily focus on Nelson Mandela, who advocated and fought for ending apartheid, which was a segregation-based practice of dividing white people and black people living in the Republic of South African or RSA. It is important to note that for the majority of his adult life, Mandela spent in prison as a consequence of using primarily non-violent approaches, which resulted in mass shootings. Therefore, his fight towards equality shifted towards more aggressive means because he strived to achieve it with all methods available. Although he outlived the given segregation practice, he was able to complete his vision and “long walk to freedom” with worldwide success achieving Pan-Africanism’s further development and empowerment of not only South Africans but also Africans in general. Therefore, Mandela’s goal for equality, and development, and democratization of South African started before he became a prisoner and continued to live on and be impactful beyond his presidency due to its transcendence above RSA.
Biography
In order to properly analyze the impact and role of Mandela in the development of South African and Africa in general, it is of paramount importance to overview his biography and major events of his life. The first black president of the Republic of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was born in 1918. He attended a school where his teacher gave him an English name instead of an African name, Nelson, at the Clarkebury boarding institute, at several universities1. In 1943, Mandela took part for the first time in a protest against the rise in bus fares. In 1944, he became a member of the African National Congress, began to take part in the struggle against the apartheid regime, that is, the most extreme form of racial discrimination.
In 1961, Nelson Mandela led the fight against the apartheid regime. In 1962, Mandela was arrested by the authorities and imprisoned in Johannesburg Prison. Then he was sentenced to five years in prison, but in 1964 he was already sentenced to life imprisonment. He was imprisoned in solitary confinement in prison on Robben Island near the Cape of Good Hope. In total, Nelson Mandela spent 27 years in prison, and he was transferred from prison to prison2. During Mandela’s imprisonment, many international media outlets put pressure on the South African authorities. Mandela was released in 1990, and in 1991 became the leader of the African National Congress. His party took part in negotiations to end the apartheid regime. In 1993, Nelson Mandela was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1994, Nelson Mandela became President of South Africa and held this post until June 14, 19993. During his presidency, Nelson Mandela undertook a number of important socio-economic reforms to overcome inequality in South Africa. Nelson Mandela passed away at the age of 96 on December 5, 2013, at his home in the suburbs of Johannesburg4.
Analysis
White Inclusion
The very first and the most evident reason why Nelson Mandela’s message transcended South Africa and impacted the entire African continent through Pan-Africanism is can found in the fact that he did not express hatred or bitterness to white people but rather invited them to the cause. In other words, Mandela realized that his goal of liberation, development, and democracy needs and should involve white people as well despite them being the source of oppression during apartheid5. Such an approach ensured that his and the nation’s strive for multiculturalism, and African nationalism alongside its restoration towards equality was not built on the very harmful and damaging ideas and notions, which caused the apartheid regime in the first place. For example, during his infamous Rivonia Trial speech, he stated that he “have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities”6. In other words, the struggle for liberation was not solely targeted at black Africans but also white people and other races and ethnicities.
Pan-African Message Through Metaphorical Models
The second reason why Nelson Mandela’s impact transcended South Africa and contributed to the development of the entire African continent through Pan-Africanism is manifested in the fact that the message of the given individual’s work transcended through metaphorical meaning. In Nelson Mandela’s discourse, freedom is and needs to be presented as a reward, a long-awaited prize for the people. In Africa, the national question is determined by socioeconomic and political factors, traditions and beliefs, linguistic specifics. The president spoke about the need to recognize the originality of national cultures, their unique value. It is necessary to form political thinking, which is based on ensuring equal rights for every nation, meeting the interests of each nationality, tribal group, strengthening guarantees that exclude infringement of the rights of citizens on a national basis. The conceptual vector of the metaphorical model “freedom is the purpose” is aimed at creating an image of a long journey, a long search for the desired goal7. RSA, where human rights have been infringed for a long time, is presented and can be considered as a “valley of darkness”8. The president acts as a leader capable of leading people out of a dark, oppressive past into a valley of light. In accordance with African traditions, the concept of freedom is one of the main components of the perception of the world. Freedom personifies the leader who must rule the state and lead the people.
The metaphorical model “obtaining freedom is a military victory” carries the conceptual vector of a long struggle confronting the enemy oppressing Africans. The metaphorical model reflects the desperate war of the people for independence. Mandela’s desire to win independence for his country is presented as a war for his ideals, a struggle for the welfare of the land. For a long time, African leaders viewed armed struggle as the only means of resolving internal conflicts. However, the consequences of this war were millions of deaths, huge flows of refugees, and economic degradation. The people of Africa have gone through a lot of suffering. The conceptual vector of the metaphorical model “freedom is a treatment of human wounds” conveys the idea of creating a different social structure, where people will receive new opportunities.
Nelson Mandela believed that the African people, oppressed for centuries, should no longer suffer and be a slave. The metaphorical model “African people is a sufferer” carries a negative connotation and translates the need to free people from humiliation and oppression. The metaphors of the human body in political discourse are apt to describe both society and the state9. The bodily consciousness of a person appears initially in the formation of his ideas about himself, about the world, culture, and society. The metaphorical model “obtaining freedom is a hope throwing in the chest of people” translates the dreams of the people about creating a better society, freedom for every person.
Freedom in the president’s ideas is defined as the endpoint of a long journey in search of an ideal society, a democratic system. The concept appears to be a reward for people who have endured oppression and deprivation for many years. A free society symbolizes the birth of a child, the birth of a new life. The establishment of a democratic society is metaphorically presented as a struggle for their ideals. War seems to be the only way to achieve social welfare and equality. The concept of freedom in the texts of N. Mandela is represented by metaphors of nature, broadcasting the beauty and strength of the African land, on which everyone can be happy.
The presented materials serve as yet another evidence of the significant differences that are found in the metaphorical designation of freedom in the African consciousness and the consciousness of peoples who for a long time live in conditions of democracy, national independence, and the absence of oppression associated with racial, gender, religious or other human qualities, with his political convictions or professional activities. The specificity of understanding freedom is closely related to the history and culture of the people, with the political structure of society and its compliance with the standards of democracy. The main direction in the policy of Nelson Mandela was the creation of a democratic society in which mutual respect and equality reigned10. Metaphors of construction create an image of the formation of a new state policy, the creation of a different political system. The President has always dreamed of creating a society where there would be no racial struggle and infringement of human rights, where every person would be free and happy. Metaphors reflect the emergence of a new social order after a long struggle and suffering, in which new values will reign.
UMkhonto we Sizwe or Spear of the Nation
The third reason why Nelson Mandela’s impact transcended South African and adhered to the core ideas of Pan-Africanism is rooted in the fact that his message and ambitions reached the international arena of recognition, behind which the main catalyzer was the necessary militaristic measures of liberation. By the end of the 1950s, a major change was taking place in Africa. The states of the continent, one after another, proclaimed independence, the mighty colonial empires collapsed. However, at the Cape of Good Hope, on the contrary, the repression intensified11. The watershed came in June 1960, when police fired on an African demonstration in the village of Sharpeville, killing 69 people. Soon the ANC was outlawed, and in 1961 it went underground and organized the military wing of the ANC “uMkhonto we Sizwe,” which means “Spear of the Nation”12. Soon the newspapers were full of reports of attacks on administrative buildings and economic facilities. At the same time, the manifesto “uMkhonto we Sizwe” was circulated in the country. During this time, this manifesto was accused of carrying out planned attacks on government buildings, in particular those related to the politics of apartheid and racial discrimination.
The sabotage activity of “uMkhonto we Sizwe” had the greatest scope in 1962-1963. In the future, the intensity of the struggle noticeably weakens, and this is primarily due to the introduction of new repressive laws in South Africa and the intensification of police terror, which led to mass arrests of both rank and file and leading members of the liberation movement. “uMkhonto we Sizwe,” according to the plan of its creators, was to gradually turn from a small sabotage organization into a well-trained and trained liberation army. It was decided to start implementing the plans for military training, as it will be many years before we create a sufficient core of trained fighters to start a guerrilla war. “uMkhonto we Sizwe” was to become the nucleus of the future National Liberation Army13.
However, Mandela never called for terrorism, and the creation of a military structure was a necessary measure. First, it was believed that policies of racial discrimination made African counter-resistance inevitable and that without clear leadership to steer popular outrage back on track, that outrage would have spilled over into reckless terrorism. Secondly, such methods proceeded from the fact that all legal methods of our disagreement with racist ideas of white supremacy were prohibited by law. It should be noted that the tactics of warfare were chosen by Mandela for practical reasons and in order to avoid casualties and to provide a better hope for relations between races in the future, which flowed from the ANC legacy of non-violence and racial harmony.
Subsequently, on August 5, 1962, Mandela was arrested, and for 40 years, the United Nations fought with all its might against apartheid, declared by the General Assembly a crime against humanity. The Security Council, which has regularly addressed this issue since 1960, regarded it as a crime against human conscience and dignity14. Relying on the world community, the UN has embarked on searching for a peaceful solution to the conflict. Activities aimed at achieving this goal included the diplomatic, economic and military isolation of South Africa, the development of international norms in relation to apartheid, and assistance to its victims and liberation movements.
The shooting of unarmed peaceful demonstrators in Sharpeville in March 1960 by the South African police marked a sharp turn in the struggle against apartheid. In 1962, a special body was formed, known since 1974 as the Special Committee against Apartheid. The committee began to play an active role in the international campaign against apartheid, officially announced by the UN in 196615. It called for the severing of trade, cultural, and sports ties with South Africa and, together with the Center against Apartheid, created in 1976, collaborated with governments, intergovernmental organizations, religious leaders, student and youth organizations in mobilizing public opinion to support UN resolutions against apartheid.
Counterargument and Rebuttal
One might argue that the militaristic approach by Nelson Mandela through the use of uMkhonto we Sizwe defies the non-violent strategy, which makes it less legitimate for Pan-Africanism. In addition, one might also argue that Mandela’s impact did not transcend RSA and was a mere local achievement. However, it is important to note the fact that such an approach was utilized prior to the massacre at Sharpeville, and it is this event that was the turning point for Mandela’s approaches16. In other words, the oppressed always strived to achieve equality with the most humane methods available, but the ruthlessness of the oppressor forced the use of more aggressive measures. The armed wing did not target all white people, but rather the South African government, which was the source of the regime and segregation.
In the case of the impact of Mandela’s achievement, one should be aware that the transformation of South Africa affected the entire continent since the UN’s involvement serves as evidence for intentional recognition of the issue. For example, despite the UK and South Africa having a long and complicated relationship stemming from the history of slave trade and colonialism, the regular UK citizens protested in favor of Mandela while he was imprisoned17. UN also played a major role in bringing the problem to an international arena, where sanctions and other measured were undertaken to suppress the violent acts committed by the South African government18. In other words, Mandela’s influence transcended South Africa by making the issue of segregation and racial inequality a subject of international discourse.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to note that Nelson Mandela devoted his life to end the practice of segregation and racial inequality. His fight began before becoming a prisoner of the oppressive system, where he strived to use non-violent means, which resulted in mass shootings and massacres. Although he changed his approach towards a more militaristic one, it is due to the fact that he was forced to do so in response to the ruthlessness of the government. The metaphorical models of his message, his armed wing, and white inclusion played a critical role in ensuring that the racial injustice taking place in South Africa became internationally recognized and its impacts transcended the nation towards the entire African continents through the ideas of Pan-Africanism.
References
Graham, Matthew, and Christopher Fevre. Boycotts, rallies and Free Mandela: UK anti-apartheid movement created a blueprint for activists today. The Conversation, 2020.
Ndebele, Njabulo S. Nelson Mandela and Black Lives. United Nations, 2020.
Sampson, Anthonny. Nelson Mandela: The Authorised Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 2011.
Sewpaul, Vishantie. “Politics with soul: Social work and the legacy of Nelson Mandela.” International Social Work 59, no. 6 (2016): 697-708.
Simpson, Thula. Umkhonto we Sizwe: The ANC’s Armed Struggle. New York: Penguin Random House South Africa, 2016.
Thompson, Alex. An Introduction to African Politics. London & New York: Routledge, 2016.
Zeleza, Paul T. “Africa’s Struggles for Decolonization: From Achebe to Mandela.” Research in African Literatures 45, no. 4 (2014): 121-139.
Footnotes
- Anthonny Sampson, Nelson Mandela: The Authorised Biography (New York: HarperCollins, 2011), 347.
- Ibid., 257
- Ibid., 331
- Ibid., 335
- Vishantie Sewpaul, “Politics with soul: Social work and the legacy of Nelson Mandela,” International Social Work 59, no. 6 (2016): 701.
- Paul T. Zeleza, “Africa’s Struggles for Decolonization: From Achebe to Mandela,” Research in African Literatures 45, no. 4 (2014): 133.
- Sampson, Nelson Mandela: The Authorised Biography, 345.
- Ibid., 378.
- Ibid., 491.
- Ibid., 411.
- Thula Simpson, Umkhonto we Sizwe: The ANC’s Armed Struggle (New York: Penguin Random House South Africa, 2016), 78.
- Ibid., 62.
- Ibid., 89.
- Ibid., 43.
- Ibid., 117.
- Alex Thompson, An Introduction to African Politics (London & New York: Routledge, 2016), 60.
- Matthew Graham and Christopher Fevre, Boycotts, rallies and Free Mandela: UK anti-apartheid movement created a blueprint for activists today (The Conversation, 2020).
- Njabulo S. Ndebele, Nelson Mandela and Black Lives (United Nations, 2020).
Historical Processes In Nevada At The Beginning Of The 20th Century
In the 1900 year, the two-decade depression had been continuing in Nevada. By an occasion, miner Jim Butler outcropped gold and silver, which attracted investors to the new camp, Tonopah. This relief from discovery, which put the two-decade depression to an end, dramatically changed Nevada’s social, political, and economic life. To begin with, mining developments in southern and central Nevada enticed Nevadans and outside investors, who decided to transport ore to California markets and overseas by building railways. This led to creating company towns (highly dependent on mining railways) designed to ensure stability. Urbanization caused immigration (which led to the rise of prostitution), establishing schools, churches, and public libraries. Concerning political life, the local government appeared, in company towns, companies regulated population behavior and even approved the saloons. Politics was in high interest among society: it was hard to find a voter who has not been a candidate for office at some time. As for the economic impact of the mining boom in Nevada, although mining railroads allowed establishing hotels, liquor and ore export, and other financially profitable activities, they also created the lack of employment and supplies because of migration. Moreover, the railroad’s presence created a sense of permanence, allowing to build a community, such as the Mesquite Club (1911), a women’s organization still involved in community education and civic activities. Strikes on labor issues appeared: workers demanded to be united as a class, abolishing the wage system.
The Progressive Era changed Nevada by providing different reforms and changes concerning taxes, women’s suffrage, woring conditions. Representatives of the progressive movement (usually women) in Nevada tried to improve living conditions, generally advocating democracy and social justice. Francis Newlands, for instance, served the nation, proposing a corporate tax to control trusts and working on various measures, aiding women’s suffrage. Denver Dickerson recommended different Progressive laws to the 1909 legislature, increasing tax assessments on railroads. Tasker Oddie joined the party’s caravan around Nevada and pushed in the legislature the law about compensation for railroad employees who were injured in the workplace. As women still lacked the vote in Nevada, Anne Martin became the president of the Nevada Women’s Civic League and helped to pass federal laws to fund maternal health care. The progressive Era allowed mining to remain the central sphere of the economy.
San Francisco And LA Unified School Districts: Emergency Operations Plan
Introduction
Emergency operations plan (EOP) is a course of action that aims at reducing the damage caused by potential incidents. If left unchecked, such occurrences may harm an organization’s population. The tool provides an organised and systematic plan to mitigate, prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from the emergencies (FEMA: Guide for developing high-quality school emergency operations plans, 2013).
In this paper, the author will focus on the EOPs adopted by San Francisco and Los Angeles Unified School Districts.
EOPs Selected for Analysis
The EOPs chosen for analysis are those put in place by San Francisco and LA Unified School Districts. The EOPs were selected because they are designed for institutions with a large population of young people. In such places, incidents may lead to a large number of casualties if no appropriate response action is taken. The EOPs chosen provide detailed information on managing such events as bomb threats, medical emergencies, and fires. Bomb threats or bombing cases are not a common occurrence in San Francisco or LA. However, the rise in incidences of terrorism across the globe means that learning institutions should put in place measures to counter and manage bomb related threats and attacks. Fire breakouts are common in San Francisco neighbourhoods. For example, on October 1, 2016, structure fires were reported in three different places. As a result, San Francisco’s EOP can be used to analyse whether or not the fire management plans are in line with the guidelines provided in such tools as FEMA (FEMA: Guide for developing high-quality school emergency operations plans, 2013).
The Realistic Nature of the Plans
All the plans adopted by San Francisco and LA Unified Schools are realistic. The reason is that they are systematic and provide all the necessary steps that could work in a real-life situation. The plans provide a detailed analysis of the expectations of members of staff, internal and external communications, as well as common and specialised procedures. Other important outlines are the specific roles, responsibilities, and response measures. In times of medical emergencies, for example, the EOPs begin by stating that the members of staff should carefully assess the situation and immediately call 911.
In cases of bleeding, the school administration should apply direct pressure on the wound until haemorrhage stops (San Francisco Unified School District, 2014). The procedure sounds realistic because the steps are similar to what takes place in a real situation.
Evaluation Tools Used
The evaluation tools used for the analysis are the FEMA Sample, the Guide for Developing HQ School EOPs, and Resources-EOPs for K-12. The tools provide important information on strategies, policies, and procedures required to mitigate and recover from incidents that pose a threat to an organization. They define preparedness based on five components. The constituents are prevention, protection, mitigation, response, and recovery (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2010).
The San Francisco and LA Unified Schools EOPs match the guidelines stipulated in the tools used.
The Best Plan
Based on the analysis, Los Angeles Unified School District has the best EOP. The reason is because the plan outlines all the necessary procedures required to manage incidents both in the school and in the entire district. It highlights the need for collaboration between the district and the local, state, and federal agencies. In addition, the plan follows all the guidelines stated in FEMA, Guide for Developing HQ for Schools EOPs, and Resources EOPs for K-12. In terms of incidents, LA’s EOP also covers a wide range of probable disasters compared to San Francisco’s plan. All the response measures are clearly explained and follow the guidelines stated in different acts and policy guides, such as the California Emergencies Act, the Good Samaritan Law and SB 911, as well as the American Red Cross (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2010).
The Worst Plan
Out of the three chosen EOPs, the one used by San Francisco Unified School District was found to be the worst plan. However, this does not mean that the EOP is not realistic and useful in managing the different incidents stated. The plan provides important information on how to handle such cases as medical emergencies, bomb threats, fires, earthquakes, and intruders on campus. The reason why it was regarded as the worst plan out of the three is that it leaves out some significant incidents and probable disasters. In addition, the EOP only mentions the responsibilities of the school’s personnel and administration. It fails to state the roles of external parties, such as the various San Francisco federal departments and agencies (San Francisco Unified School District, 2014).
The Relevance of the Selected EOPs
The two EOPs are relevant given that they are applicable to a wide array of emergencies and disasters. The incidents covered in both plans are likely to occur in learning institutions and neighbourhoods. Some of the disasters, such as earthquakes, fires, flooding, and terrorism acts, may affect more than one site (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2010). The chosen EOPs are relevant because they provide measures that can help to protect the safety and welfare of students and members of staff, organise safe and coordinated responses, as well as enable the schools to restore normal conditions within a short time and with less confusion.
Realistic Utilization of Groups
San Francisco and Los Angeles Unified School Districts’ EOPs use supporting and cooperating groups to help manage the identified disasters and emergencies. However, Los Angeles utilises more personnel from within and outside the learning institution. Some of the cooperating and support groups include the school’s personnel, the local district, the federal agencies, and the Red Cross. The groups work together, communicate, and depend on each other during incidents to ensure that emergencies are well managed (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2010).
Reasonable Timeframes
Support and coordination groups should respond to disaster stricken areas within the shortest time possible. In addition, the creation of emergency response plans should not take more than one academic year (FEMA: Guide for developing high-quality school emergency operations plans, 2013). However, implementation may take more than one year. The EOPs used by San Francisco and Los Angeles were created and completed within one academic year. However, the Los Angeles plan took a longer period to implement. The factors associated with the long duration of implementation include the degree of changes made, budget, and the approval time required for all recommendations.
The Effectiveness of the Selected EOPs
The two EOPs are effective in relation to outcomes, loss, and recovery during emergencies. However, the levels of efficacy vary based on the situation at hand. In relation to earthquakes, for example, the San Francisco plan and the stipulated response steps seem to be more effective compared to the Los Angeles EOP. The reason for this is that the San Francisco plan is more detailed as far as the actions to be taken by support groups both inside and outside the school are concerned (San Francisco Unified School District, 2014).
The Main Differences between the Selected EOPs
The two EOPs have a similar goal of responding and recovering from emergencies. However, the plans vary in a number of ways. The variations are in terms of scope, vulnerability, and evaluation of impacts. The LA’s EOP, for example, provides information on the effect of each disaster and the school’s vulnerability to the situation (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2010). On its part, the San Francisco plan only provides information on response measures.
Conclusion
Emergency operation plans are important given that they promote effective response and recovery from different incidents, such as fires, medical emergencies, and earthquakes. In learning institutions, the plans must be in line with the guidelines stipulated in such tools as the FEMA for Schools. The effectiveness of the plans depend on the collaboration between multiple jurisdictions, functional agencies, and emergency response disciplines.
References
FEMA: Sample school emergency operations plan. (2013).
FEMA: Guide for developing high-quality school emergency operations plans. (2013).
Los Angeles Unified School District: Emergency operations plan. (2010). Web.
San Francisco Unified School District: School site emergency plan. (2014). Web.