Plant invasions
Plant invasions are crucial and refer to exotic species’ invasion of a particular ecosystem with or without native plant species. Plant invasions slowly occurred in the past as the earth was minimally explored, and there weren’t enough vectors to carry out the migration of exotic species to new locations (Dimitrakopoulos et al., 2017). The last few centuries have seen an immense improvement in plant invasions. Many exotic species have now invaded new areas, and either thrived alongside the native species or failed altogether (Bellemare et al., 2017). The adaptation of exotic species to an environment is dependent on several factors. These factors include the invading species, the habitats invaded, and how the invasions are managed. The third alternative is the elimination of native species and the progress of the exotic species alone.
Generally, the factors determining species invasiveness can be broadly classified into organism-related factors or ecosystem-centered factors. Organism-related factors include the tens rule, residence time, taxonomic patterns, phenotypic plasticity, and rapid evolutionary change (Jeschke & Heger, 2018). Ecosystem-centered factors include invasion levels, biotic resistance, links between diversity and invisibility, mutualism, and invasion meltdowns. No single factor entirely determines the invasiveness of an exotic species, and therefore there is an interdependence of some of these factors to this phenomenon. The concepts of plant invasion are crucial for several biological processes, including conservation ecology (Jeschke & Heger, 2018). Invasiveness is crucial in helping scientists conserve plant species poised to become extinct by integrating them into a new ecosystem and ensuring their survival. Weed science is another field that is a major beneficiary of plant invasions. This is due to the need for advanced agricultural practices. Identification of species likely to thrive better than weeds in an area is crucial in ensuring the survival of desired plant species.
Biotic Resistance Hypothesis
The biotic resistance hypothesis is also called the diversity resistance hypothesis or the species richness hypothesis. This theory proposes a negative association between original species diversity and ecosystem invasibility. Experimental work shows this true when artificial collections of varying diversity are used in these experiments (Fridley et al., 2007). Contrastingly, observational studies over a huge area show a positive relationship between invasiveness and diversity. The negative findings from observational studies and experimental studies can be explained through several phenomena. On a large scale, the extrinsic conditions that enable the high diversity of native species also support different alien species. These conditions include climate, substrate, and habitat heterogeneity (Petruzzella et al., 2018). The overall positive relationship results from uniting data from many small negative relationships where the extrinsic conditions vary. In a highly diverse community, the utilization of resources is more effective, and productivity is enhanced. The low invisibility of highly diverse communities is due to the low availability of resources hence inadequate supplies for the invading species.
Biotic resistance affects different ecosystems in varying ways, with plants in mesic surroundings being more invasive than those in the terrestrial environment. Rejmánek et al. (2013) explain that the resources aspect of the biotic resistance hypothesis is a major determinant of this phenomenon. Terrestrial environments do not provide sufficient sunlight for the germination and seedling survival of many exotic species. The native plant species in such environments exhibit rapid growth and intense competition for available resources such as sunlight hence difficulty in the survival of exotic species. Functional group identity is a vital factor that has an immense impact on biotic resistance in aquatic environments as only one species survives in these environments, as shown in Figure 1 (Petruzzella et al., 2018).
Note. Adapted from “Mechanisms of invasion resistance of aquatic plant communities” by Petruzzella et al., 2018, Frontiers in Plant Science, 9(134).
Areas with highly diverse native species are likely to be invaded better by exotic species than areas with low species diversity. Fridley et al. (2007) outline the role of other species such as animals in developing biotic resistance as they impact the ecosystem. Some of these creatures, especially aquatic animals, serve as deliberate spreaders of the exotic invaders into an ecosystem.
Plant Communities and Invasions
Plant communities are crucial in influencing invasions into different ecosystems. The plant factors form one side of crucial factors for this phenomenon, with the other side representing ecosystem-centered factors. The invasive species must have features that give it the edge and ensure survival in the foreign ecosystem already occupied by other native species. Some of these factors include fast growth, rapid reproduction, high dispersal ability, phenotype plasticity, environmental tolerance (ecological competence), prior successful invasions, tolerance to a wide range of foods, and association with humans (Hiatt & Flory, 2019). Species that can grow quickly are better capable of invading an ecosystem and thriving as they escape elimination. Species with rapid reproduction ensure that their numbers are always high and favor their continued existence in an ecosystem, such that complete elimination is impossible. High dispersal ability means that a species can spread out over a large area, increasing its chances of survival within the ecosystem that it is invading.
Phenotype plasticity means that a species has the genetic ability to alter itself to suit environmental demands. This ensures that a species is not limited by the hardships that an environment may present (Smith et al., 2020). Aligning itself with environmental demands ensures that a species can invade an ecosystem and appropriately colonize it. Tolerance to varying environmental conditions such as scarce water and sunlight means that a species can survive until the conditions are favorable again (Wang et al., 2020). This encompassed entering a stage of latency and continued thriving when the conditions were appropriate. A plant’s ability to live off different types of food means that it is not dependent on only one food type; hence, it survives when the preferred type is limited. Prior successful invasions are vital for a species as they are crucial markers of their chances of survival in a new environment (Hulme et al., 2017). Association with humans is also vital as they regulate the growth and invasiveness of plants around them. These plants may have developed favorable mechanisms for adaptation.
Personal Opinion
Plant invasion is an important topic that determines many aspects of life, including food production. The presence of invasion and factors that affect this phenomenon is a reality. The control of these factors for end goals such as weed control is essential and prevents food inadequacy. Manipulation of plant-based factors is possible with advancements in technology and genetic studies. The manipulation of ecosystem-based factors is a possibility and can be done in controlled environments. Ecology has focused on controlling factors such as biotic resistance and finding mechanisms to ensure their interference is favorable. This field is poised to make greater advances in ensuring a better understanding of plant invasiveness and resistance.
References
Bellemare, J., Connolly, B., & Sax, D. F. (2017). Climate change, managed relocation, and the risk of intra-continental plant invasions: A theoretical and empirical exploration relative to the flora of New England. Rhodora, 119(978), 73–109. Web.
Dimitrakopoulos, P. G., Koukoulas, S., Galanidis, A., Delipetrou, P., Gounaridis, D., Touloumi, K., & Arianoutsou, M. (2017). Factors shaping alien plant species richness spatial patterns across Natura 2000 Special Areas of Conservation of Greece. Science of the Total Environment, 601-602, 461–468. Web.
Fridley, J. D., Stachowicz, J. J., Naeem, S., Sax, D. F., Seabloom, E. W., Smith, M. D., Stohlgren, T. J., Tilman, D., & Holle, B. V. (2007). The invasion paradox: Reconciling pattern and process in species invasions. Ecology, 88(1), 3–17. Web.
Hiatt, D., & Flory, S. L. (2019). Populations of a widespread invader and co‐occurring native species vary in phenotypic plasticity. New Phytologist, 225(1), 584–594. Web.
Hulme, P. E., Brundu, G., Carboni, M., Dehnen-Schmutz, K., Dullinger, S., Early, R., Essl, F., González-Moreno, P., Groom, Q. J., Kueffer, C., Kühn, I., Maurel, N., Novoa, A., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Seebens, H., Tanner, R., Touza, J. M., van Kleunen, M., & Verbrugge, L. N. H. (2017). Integrating invasive species policies across ornamental horticulture supply chains to prevent plant invasions. Journal of Applied Ecology, 55(1), 92–98. Web.
Jeschke, J. M., & Heger, T. (2018). Invasion Biology: Hypotheses and Evidence. In Google Books. CABI. Web.
Petruzzella, A., Manschot, J., van Leeuwen, C. H. A., Grutters, B. M. C., & Bakker, E. S. (2018). Mechanisms of invasion resistance of aquatic plant communities. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9(134). Web.
Rejmánek, M., Richardson, D., & Py1ek, P. (2013). Plant invasions and invasibility of plant communities (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Web.
Smith, A. L., Hodkinson, T. R., Villellas, J., Catford, J. A., Csergő, A. M., Blomberg, S. P., Crone, E. E., Ehrlén, J., Garcia, M. B., Laine, A.-L., Roach, D. A., Salguero-Gómez, R., Wardle, G. M., Childs, D. Z., Elderd, B. D., Finn, A., Munné-Bosch, S., Baudraz, M. E. A., Bódis, J., & Brearley, F. Q. (2020). Global gene flow releases invasive plants from environmental constraints on genetic diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(8), 4218–4227. Web.
Wang, S., Wei, M., Cheng, H., Wu, B., Du, D., & Wang, C. (2020). Indigenous plant species and invasive alien species tend to diverge functionally under heavy metal pollution and drought stress. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 205, 111160. Web.
Laziness As A Modern Enemy Of People
Every person has dreams that they want to fulfill. Someone dreams of becoming a teacher, someone a doctor, and someone plans to travel to many countries. All this can be achieved if a person is not lazy. Laziness is a modern enemy of people because of which problems appear in life. Because of laziness, talented people miss the opportunity to reveal their abilities. People are ready to part with their dreams because they are too lazy to go forward. It is difficult to imagine a doctor who is too lazy to examine a person at a reception or a teacher who is too lazy to teach a lesson. These people are responsible, and they know that the fate of other people depends on their actions, so they are strict about their business.
Lazy people gradually find their life to be complete failures. They are too lazy to study, and they do not want to sit down at the table and learn some subject. In their work, they are also lazy, do not want to reach the top, and sit in place, waiting every day in boredom for the end of the working day. At home, such people are also not all smooth, and they are too lazy to make repairs and bring the apartment to a good look, too lazy to fix something. Instead of running in the morning or going to the gym, they sit on the couch, watch shows, and eat junk food.
Probably laziness contributes to the complete degradation of a person. It does not depend on their mental abilities, because sometimes very talented people miss all their chances in life because they are too lazy to move in the right direction. It is a pity to look at it when interesting and creative personalities kill their potential sitting on the couch. It is necessary to fight laziness as soon as there is a desire to lie down in front of the TV and watch a useless program.
Housing, Profit, And Justice In California
Introduction
California is among the best cities in the United States and the world at large, leading in movie production and property development. As such, San Francisco has experienced the effects of mass house and industrial growth. In addition, the activities resulting from its expansion have not only led to the segregation of people but also, it has caused hazards. Therefore, they pose danger to the populations, especially the blacks. As a result, writers have voiced their concern over the alarming consequences of housing by private developers and the governments that pose injustice both to the inhabitants and the environment. Consequently, Los Angeles is among the cities in California which experience ecological disasters such as urban sprawl, droughts, floods, tornadoes, and fires (Davis 16). Further, the above issues are exacerbated through human activities and they lead to many losses. Through a movie, Talbot highlights how housing and industrial development have led to divisions and the contamination of water in San Francisco. Besides, Robert (4) expounds on how urbanization has become an evil in California. This paper evaluates how the aforementioned writers and artists tackle the issues using different perspectives through their works.
The Last Man in San Francisco
This is a movie by Joe Talbot highlighting the plight of people faced with environmental challenges posed by industrial developments amidst human settlement. Using two main characters, Jimmie and Mont the director shows the plight of a young man who is in dilemma by dreaming of owning a modern house built by the grandfather but now it is beyond his reach. In the begging, a black man is preaching at the roadside near a river while the protagonist looks on wondering how jail has changed the guy’s head though they agree he is speaking the truth. He complains that the place used to be the best with clean air but lately people walk with masks due to pollution (Talbot). As the sermon continues, people are seen collecting rubbish while covered in polythene bags from toe to the head indicating that the environment is toxic.
The movie revolves around Jimmie and his love for the Victorian house built in 1946 which is currently in another part of town, the Fillmore district consisting of only whites. This is a place where he grew up to the age of 6 with his father but the parent lost the house. However, it remained inhabited until recently when an elderly couple occupied it (Talbot). Although he knows it is illegal to access the place, Jimmie seeks the help of Mont and together they trespass and access the property from time to time. He is not vengeful but rather, fond of the house and repairs it to the dismay of the occupants especially the wife who angrily and throws croissants at him while repainting. Conversely, the situation changes due to tragic events that lead to the house being unoccupied and as a result, he gets his chance and realizes his dream. Together with Mont, they reclaim the house where his friend uses it for the production of his play. The director uses narration through his characters to show the environment that exists in San Francisco.
Where I was From
In her work, Didion writes entirely about the enchanting and a glamorous California when she was growing up. Her memoir defines the writer’s early home turf in the state where the history of her family journey is told with a nostalgic memory (Didion 1). Further she highlights that California is among the states in the US which depend on federal resources from the beginning and much of its development stems from such backup. However, after the death of her mother, the writers note many differences in the city where she grew up. The wealth white men and property owners dominate the place with the mega projects that have environmental impacts. Besides, the Native American and blacks have not been focused to highlight the contributions they have made over the years.
Disasters in California
Through his scholarly works, the author explores various human-made hazards that make the city vulnerable. For instance, he highlights ecological variations such as topography and hydrology combined with government policy and human settlements which worsen the situation. Also, the state does not seek practical solutions even after disaster recovery (Davis 16). Further, he describes how people’s actions interlink with the environment and the resultant effects. For instance, the Southern California policy on fire enhances fire disasters instead of curbing or preventing such occurrences. He expounds that stockpiles of fuel are placed near settlements in a landscape characterized by dry and hot winds which ignite fires that destroy homes (Davis 101). While on one hand money is provided to rebuild, on the other hand, the new structures are constructed in more vulnerable and susceptible areas consisting of more fuels and winds.
Further, Davis describes the ecology of fear in a diagram showing different zones of the Chicago city. In his illustration, housing types are highlighted starting from the center, residential and commercial buildings, homes, apartments, bungalows, and family dwellings on the outskirts. Also, social life is indicated in the inner city where zones of fear such as drugs, prostitution, and homelessness are surrounded by suburbs and gated buildings walled off from the prevalent evil in the inner city (Davis 365). As a result, he asserts that fear, misconception and misplaced priorities in public policy have led to the destruction of urbanization while favoring suburban development.
The American Babylon
While writing to correct the misconception of some scholars on urban development during the postwar period in Oakland, Self believes that suburban overdevelopment indicated the most partial change to be witnessed in American history. He argues that conservatives and home owner’s politics led to tension with the African Americans’ politics of community entitlement, thus, resulting in competition over space highlighting inequalities in towns and suburban regions (Self 2). He notes that Detroit experienced a decline in the Post-war period. Further, Broadway, Washington, and Broadway which were the main commercial channels for Oakland experienced a decline in property value. As a result, the Chamber of Commerce resorted to applying decentralization by facilitating homeownership in the city and the suburbs.
Conversely, this did not help the black community since new businesses in San Leandro, Walnut Creek, and Hayward prevented the development of downtown centers. The disparities led to conflicts in the 1970s where African Americans advocated for community empowerment as they expressed their anger on exploitation by the white minority. It formed a political party, the Black Panther which saw the control of federal projects and the liberation of blacks (Self). The study offers an examination of the role of blacks in the improvement of a decaying surrounding characterized by development.
Western American Literature and the City of Quartz
Through the contemporary anthology containing the works of more than 65 writers, Self, shows different aspects of life while highlighting how California has evolved and, in the process, lost its originality. Further, the book explores the mixture of landscapes both rural and urban with its wilderness and city life. Also, it includes places such as the heartland, north, south, and Disneyland world, exposing the multicultural practices with labor and classes in society (Self 262). Besides, the writings are directed to the general audience with their recurring landscapes exposing diversity among California writers.
The City of quartz paints a poignant image on the minds of the readers showing the deplorable state California finds itself in as a result of development that does not consider the natural environment. Although written figuratively for a future city, urbanization has become the main object bedeviling the beautiful city. For instance, the Antelope Valley in Southern California has been invaded by an influx of new immigrants with more expectations. Besides, developers have destroyed the desert trees with their mega-building projects. There are 10 to 12 big firms with their headquarters in Beverly Hills and Newport Beach who perceive the desert as a source of money without regarding the environment (Davis 4). They use bulldozers to uproot and destroy forest trees that have been there since time immemorial. This has led to more hazards than benefits to the surrounding populations.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the writers have written convincingly about the adverse effects of development in various cities in California. On the one hand, developers are concerned with profits at the expense of environmental degradation, while on the other hand, African Americans are sidelined especially in Oakland leading to the formation of political movements. In addition, blacks in San Francisco cannot afford modern houses as they have been segregated and the waters are contaminated. Further, government policies are misplaced in Southern California and Los Angeles leading to the recurrence of disasters like fire and tornadoes. Lastly, the perspective that shows the correlation between profit-making by developers and inadequate state legislation forms the background to all the challenges experienced in California.
Works Cited
Davis, Mike. Ecology of Fear: Los Angeles and the Imagination of Disaster. Vintage, 1999.
Didion, Joan. Where I Was From. Vintage, 2012.
Haslam, Gerald W. Many Californias: Literature from the Golden State. University of Nevada Press, 1992.
Self, Robert O. American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Politics and Society in Modern America). Princeton University Press, 2003.
Talbot, Joe. The Last Black Man in San Francisco. “University Libraries”. 2019. Web.