Introduction
Linguistic science pays significant attention to the differences in language processing among people from different linguistic backgrounds in today’s globalized world. Formulaic sequences are word combinations that have their structure, stored, and reproduced holistically with a specific meaning, such as idiom, proverb, or collocations (Puimège & Peters, 2019). The study of such forms of speech usage by native and non-native speakers is of scientific interest because they are most often a natural attribute of speech. Native speakers absorb formulaic sequences in the natural language environment (Siyanova-Chanturia & Pellicer-Sánchez, 2018). Non-native speakers, on the other hand, either learn these forms of speech or become accustomed to them under the influence of the environment (Rafieyan, 2018). The research method used in this paper is a review of the relevant literature. This paper contains an introduction, a critical review of research findings from the relevant literature discussing issues of formulaic sequences processing, sequences application in studying language, trends in the theme, and a conclusion including implications.
Formulaic Sequences Processing
Before discussing the differences in the use of formulaic sequences in native and non-native speakers, it is necessary to understand the processes of this linguistic phenomenon. Sequences have a holistic structure, preserved when reproduced, contributing to their memorization and subsequent use by other people. Carroll and Conklin (2020) note that formulaic sequences have other properties, such as predictability or mutual information. Their experiment was supposed to establish how influential different characteristics are for processing sequences of various types. Despite the existing differences in properties, the frequency of use of formulaic sequences has the most significant influence on their processing.
Given various features of formulaic sequences, some studies have explored whether such characteristics might affect native and non-native speakers. For example, Ellis et al. (2008) focus their article on parsing the concept of language formula based on corpus linguistics, psycholinguistics, and education. They conducted an experiment evaluating the effects of various metrics, such as frequency or length, on processing to identify sequences that may be valuable in language learning. Their results are consistent with Carrol and Conklin’s (2020) study, stating that their occurrence is the critical factor in the processing sequence. Moreover, the authors conclude that common formulaic sequences are more comprehensible to both natives and non-natives. Their results suggest some sequences that may be a priority for better language learning.
Using Formulaic Sequences in the Study of Language
Formulaic sequences are a significant part of the language, and therefore, when learning a second language, their recognition can become a necessary condition for proficiency. There is an opinion that formulaic sequences have an advantage in processing over creatively created language. Conklin and Schmitt (2008) researched to check this assumption. The study’s methodology was an experimental comparison, and the article’s authors compared the reading time of formula sequences and non-formula phrases for native and non-native speakers of the language.
Formula sequences were read faster than non-formula phrases by both native and non-native speakers. The study by Conklin and Schmitt (2008) confirmed the original hypothesis by reaching this conclusion. The fact that non-native speakers showed identical results along with native speakers demonstrates that people learning the language use similar phrase-processing mechanisms. These mechanisms are preserved for both idiomatic and literal translations of formula sequences (Yan, 2019). Thus, one can conclude that non-native speakers and native speakers process formulaic sequences equally – such arrangements are not more difficult to understand than literal speech but, on the contrary, easier. Given that mastery of formulaic sequences is essential to language proficiency, their understanding should be crucial for language learning.
Over time, the understanding of formulaic sequences has been supplemented and changed. In their later study, Conklin and Schmitt (2012) provided refinement their research conclusions by conducting a more precise experiment. The methodology of this study was a review of the relevant literature. The purpose of the study was to determine whether native speakers have an advantage in processing formulaic language and nonformulaic language over non-native speakers.
According to the new study results, it was concluded that native speakers process standard language better than nonformulaic language. However, non-native speakers find it much more challenging to process formulaic language word-for-word than nonformulaic speeches (Conklin & Schmitt, 2012). Although advanced learners may exhibit similar processing mechanisms to native speakers, the bulk of them still processes formulaic language much harder. The reason is the literal translation of some idioms, which is much more challenging to process. Thus, it is easier for native speakers to process formulaic language than creatively produced language, but non-native speakers have much more difficulty.
Trends in the Understanding of Formulaic Speech in a Global Perspective
The researchers’ understanding of formulaic speech changes as they study it and its features. Wray’s (2012) study focuses on how exactly formulaic speech was understood and considered at various times and reviews the significant discoveries in the field over five years. The literature review summarizes knowledge about the significance of frequency as a property and the arrangement of formulaic language subtypes on different continua. The study’s results show that it can be argued that linguistics does not yet have a complete picture of how the various features of formulaic language compare to each other (Wray, 2012). Phrases and idioms are an integral part of language, through which people interact with the surrounding reality. People interact in society, planting more and more patterns of language use. Formulaic language evolves with humanity, and researchers need to do more investigation to reconcile aspects of formulaic language use with each other.
While understanding formulaic language still requires lengthy work, the researchers recognize their importance. In particular, a key trend is the significance of formulaic sequences in learning a second language (Siyanova-Chanturia & Pellicer-Sánchez, 2018). In this area, researchers are focused on sequences’ processing, acquisition, and use. Moreover, researchers gain new opportunities due to technology development, which helps collect, process, and structure sequence data more efficiently. Thus, given the little knowledge of the features of formulaic sequences, their importance, and new possibilities, one can assume that they will attract more and more attention.
Conclusion
To summarize, the processing of formulaic sequences in native and non-native speakers differs. It is much easier for native speakers to process formulaic sequences than conventional language constructions. As for non-native speakers, it is much more difficult for them to process formulaic sequences because of the literal translation of some idioms. Nevertheless, like native speakers, non-native speakers find it easier to process formulaic sequences that are more common. Formulaic language research remains a wide field for additional experiments and conclusions. Formulaic language evolves along with the development of society and thus exhibits more and more different aspects that need to be considered.
References
Carrol, G., & Conklin, K. (2020). Is all formulaic language created equal? Unpacking the processing advantage for different types of formulaic sequences. Language and Speech, 63(1), 95–122.
Conklin, K., & Schmitt, N. (2008). Formulaic sequences: Are they processed more quickly than nonformulaic language by native and non-native speakers? Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 72-89.
Conklin, K., & Schmitt, N. (2012). The processing of formulaic language. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 32(1), 45-61.
Ellis, N. C., Simpson-Vlach, R., and Maynard, C. (2008). Formulaic language in native and second language speakers: Psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 42(3), 375-396.
Puimège, E., & Peters, E. (2019). Learning L2 vocabulary from audiovisual input: An exploratory study into incidental learning of single words and formulaic sequences. The Language Learning Journal, 47(4), 424-438.
Rafieyan, V. (2018). Knowledge of formulaic sequences as a predictor of language proficiency. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 7(2), 14-27.
Siyanova-Chanturia, A., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2018). Understanding formulaic language: A second language acquisition perspective. Routledge.
Wray, A. (2012). What do we (think we) know about formulaic language? An evaluation of the current state of play. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 32(1), 231-254.
Yan, X. (2019). Unpacking the relationship between formulaic sequences and speech fluency on elicited imitation tasks: Proficiency level, sentence length, and fluency dimensions. TESOL Quarterly, 54(2), 460-487.
The Project Management Office
The project management office (PMO) presents one of the most important activities in management that focuses on providing directions, methodology, and training for project management. Furthermore, PMO is a critical factor in achieving project success as it improves the projects’ effectiveness through the active transfer of knowledge and experience and providing support for the project and management. However, the key characteristics of a successful PMO are different from the key characteristics of a project’s success.
PMO’s functions focus on defining and maintaining standards for project management, which means that it targets improvements in the project management process. According to Kerzner (2018), PMO maintains effective project management processes, develops tools to improve project manager’s activities, stores and manages important information, and performs training for employees to improve customers’ experience. Therefore, key characteristics of a successful PMO focus on standardization, employees’ skills and dedication, and efficiency of information processing.
Therefore, key characteristics of a successful PMO include strong leadership that supports employees’ engagement and dedication to the organizational mission and alignment of PMO function with organizational goals. Furthermore, strong leadership and authority are required for an operative decision-making process and reasonable proactive proposals for problem-solving. Lastly, the success of PMO largely depends on the experience and skills of the personnel as they ensure effectiveness and allow correspondence of project management processes with relevant trends in business and technologies.
Therefore, hiring an experienced project manager for establishing PMO is more beneficial for the project than hiring an external consulting company, as the individual experience of the personnel presents an important success factor for PMO. Furthermore, the activities of external consulting companies in PMO can potentially lack alignment with organization goals. Thus, to ensure the successful use of knowledge and experience in PMO with the addition of professional expertise, hiring an experienced project manager is better than hiring an external consulting company.
Reference
Kerzner, H. (2018). Project management best practices: Achieving global excellence (4th ed.). Wiley.
Cultural Roles Of Women In Charles Brown’s Wieland
Introduction
Charles Brown’s Wieland or transformation novel addressed the concepts of cultural values and norms of women in society. The themes within the gothic novel portray women using various elements; on the one hand, women are empowered, while on the other hand, they are victims of male dominance and supremacy. First, the gender is depicted as empowered individuals through Clara’s characters and role in the story settings. Brown captures his readers’ attention by making a woman the protagonist of the story. Women’s voices are powerful in Clara’s letter, and the character intends to address the rot of society in creating male supremacy over women. Clara achieved the desire by exposing Theodore as the murderer of his wife and children. Secondly, Brown challenges his audiences to depend on societal myths in the description of women’s roles and responsibilities. Clara’s life events, both as an empowered woman and victim to male patriarchal whims, portrays Brown’s arguments about the cultural norms of women and how the message comments upon contemporary American Society.
Gender Inequality
Although Brown incorporated women’s rights in the Wieland or transformation novel, the book victimizes gender. The question of gender equality drives readers’ attention toward the assessment of the American literature text. According to Brown (168), women were seen as subjects to men. For example, Brown wrote that “I have been the fool of passion and inconstancy. My purposes have wavered from day to day, but it is time to shake this irresolution and trample on this cowardice” (383). These words were said by Clara, who wanted transformation for other women. As the story approaches its climax, Poppen (20) suggests that Clara confesses to the struggles and sacrifices she made for men. After the death of their parents, the writer of the letter in Wieland or transformation left a more significant portion of the will and inheritance to the brother. She feared societal bullying that would arise with the equal sharing of his father’s wealth.
Victimization of Women
The voices of women are undermined on the bases of gender and feminism. Brown introduces his audience to ancient America, where men dominated everything; the writer uses Clara’s situation to showcase the cultural values of women in society. Theodore, Clara’s brother, took a larger share of family wealth, leaving his sister in a small room. The main character in Brown’s book accepted her fate because she feared stereotypes who perceived men as more meaningful and influential people than women. Mlambo-Ngcuka and Osotimehin (13) commented that women had been objectified for the longest time based on their weaknesses and fear of societal values and cultures. Society protects men more than women, which is why Clara left their home for his brother and his wife-to-be. Brown resorted to creating awareness of the values of women and their significance to the community through reverse psychology.
Role of Women in Creating Sanity
Using Clara to reveal men’s hidden and dirty secrets in Brown’s novel depicts the cultural values of women in creating sanity. “My heart was now somewhat eased off a load of apprehension. I returned once more to my chamber, the door of which I was careful to lock. It was no time to think of repose,” (Brown 121). Henry, Clara’s husband, was mad when he found a stranger at his house. Carwin is a silent but traumatizing figure in the narration; the man plots to rape Clara many times despite knowing his husband (Brown 176). Carwin had a talent for speaking in different voices and took advantage of young women. Theodore killed his wife and children in cold blood to protest Carwin’s actions. Theodore suspected his wife of sleeping with Carwin while, in reality, the character was a rapist. Sexualizing women enhanced Clara to bring sanity to the community through true investigations of his brothers’ traits.
Women Render Verdict on Perpetrators
The culture of empowering women in Wieland or the transformation novel revealed the cultural values and roles of gender within American societies. Culturally, women are the heart of every community. Likewise, Poppen (19) compared the values of contemporary and traditional women to aid the understanding of cultural norms. Connecting the idea in the analysis of Clara’s letter exhibits women’s strengths in standing for what is right. Societal morality is pegged on women’s voices; the gender is disciplinarian in American settings and communities. Brown uses the powers of a woman in relaying law concepts; according to Poppen (17), Clara presented evidence regarding the involvement of Theodore in the killing of his wife and children. Despite being Theodore’s brother, Clara chose morality over family; she presented witnesses and tried to render a verdict over the murder of Catharine. Brown emulated communal beliefs alongside law to address the cultural role of women in correcting immorality.
Contemporary American Society
Even though Brown’s story is set around the 1760s, the themes addressed in the novel commemorate the recent happenings in American communities. The comments on women’s empowerment impact American communities to value women. Mlambo-Ngcuka and Osotimehin (16) echoed that the modern American environment fights for women’s rights and freedoms; Brown must have made a great effort to persuade his audience to embrace empowerment. Unlike witnessed today, the traditional American Justice System isolated women in courtrooms. However, modern criminology students can use Clara’s traits to convince the contemporary American community to adopt and accept women in the profession. The journey toward criminal justice begins with women’s empowerment to participate in such activities.
In contrast, the presentability of women as sex objects in Wieland or transformation hit the contemporary American community differently. Brown’s preference to isolate women from developmental projects and planning societal issues threatens the American dream. Modern Americans aim to achieve gender equality and growth for every individual without discrimination. Brown’s comments on the cultural values of women to drive change and sanity within the community helps contemporary American citizens to support and stand with their women. Women are part of the community because the evolving American society has realized the importance of gender balance. Brown’s choices of isolating women from men in the community have changed the perceptions of modern literature students on the cultural values of women.
Conclusion
In summary, Clara’s characteristics in Wieland or transformation portray women both as an enemy and a valuable contributors to societal growth. Brown empowered Clara to participate in letter writing and investigate the death of Catharine and Theodore’s children. Women became enemies in the book when they chose to stand with sanity over family. The male dominance and supremacy over women in Brown’s text differentiate mythological and factual issues on gender roles and cultural values of women in contemporary society. Although women passed through painful incidences in Brown’s writing, the author brings hope to future generations by selecting Clara as the book’s lead character.
Works Cited
Brown, Charles B. Wieland or the Transformation: An American Tale and Other Stories. Modern Library, 2002.
Mlambo-Ngcuka, Phumzile, and Babatunde Osotimehin. “Empowerment of women and youth.” 2016. Web.
Poppen, Anna. A Hopeless Endeavor. The Quest for Knowledge in Wieland: Or the Transformation and in “The Fall of the House of Usher”. GRIN Verlag, 2013.