History Internal Assessment: An investigation into Cold War origins
To what extent was the Cold War a result of conflicting ideologies?
Historical Internal Assessment (HL)
Examination Session: November 2013
Word Count: 1,907 words
A-PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION:
This investigation assesses the significance of the role of ideology in the origins of the Cold War. This will be assessed through approaching the investigation from two prominent aspects relating to the rise of Cold War tensions. The first being how ideological differences created tension and suspicion between the two superpowers of the Soviet Union and America. Then the second being how the different interests of the two superpowers created tension between them and caused them to perceive each other as threats. This evaluation will reach a conclusion as to whether tension which led to the Cold War stemmed from ideological differences between the Soviet Union and America or reasons such conflicting interests and a power struggle played a greater role in giving rise to the Cold War paradigm. Two sources used in this investigation will be analysed in respect to their origins, purposes, values and limitations. The sources include sections from the books ‘The United States and Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947’ by John Lewis Gaddis and ‘The memoirs of Marshal Zhukov’ by Marshal Zhukov. This investigation does not assess the events which escalated the Cold War tensions rather only the events which gave rise to those tensions nor does it assess the roles of leaders in contributing to the Cold War. B-SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE:
B.1-The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917:
The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 saw the Bolsheviks come into power in Russia1. The Bolsheviks brought reforms establishing Russia to be a Communist state with a Communist ideology which deviated far from the Western ideals of democracy and an open market 2. American President, Woodrow Wilson, failed to recognize the Bolsheviks and instead supported the anti-Bolshevik forces financially during the Russian Civil War. Wilson gave warning against the Bolshevik revolution when he stated “That sort of revolution means government by terror, government by force, not government by vote. It is the negation of everything that is American”3. B.2- World War Two and the post war Potsdam conference in 1945: During WWII both American and British leaders, Roosevelt and Churchill, aided the Soviet Union when it was attacked by Nazi Germany. This carved the Grand Alliance made up of the three powers with common cause of defeating Hitler’s Nazi Germany. The failure of the allies to open up a second front in assistance to the Soviet Union caused Stalin, the Soviet Leader, to believe that his ‘allies’ intended to see the Soviet Union permanently weakened4. The Potsdam post war conference took place in Germany in July 1945 after the victory of the allies in Europe in WWII.
The negotiations surrounded the main issues of Germany, Eastern Europe, reparations and nuclear weapons. At the Potsdam conference, differences between the negotiating parties of America, Britain and the Soviet Union became increasingly apparent as their interests clashed much of the time5. While there was no unity on Germany and reparations; the main point of conflict was the Soviet influence in Eastern Europe which seemed to become a part of the Soviet sphere of influence6. Attempts were made by American president Harry Truman to undermine Soviet influence in the region through challenging the percentages agreement. This attempt was unsuccessful due to the physical presence of the Soviet Red Army on ground in Eastern Europe7. B.3-The Atomic Bomb:
America had used the atomic bombs in Japan soon after the Potsdam conference had begun and had barely informed Stalin of possessing such a powerful weapon. Stalin, however, had knowledge of this atomic weapon which America possessed making him aware that of the fact the Truman looked to keep the knowledge of the bomb from him8. Many alternatives to the use to the atomic bomb existed, however, the Americans made no attempt to avoid its use. This is the case especially because the use of the atomic bomb would intimidate and warn the Soviet Union9.
C-Evaluation of Sources:
‘The United States and Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947’ (appendix 1) written by historian John Lewis Gaddis is a book which carefully analyses the events which caused America and the Soviet Union to perceive each there with great suspicion and the book has many values. The book’s purpose serves to emphasize the idea that tensions did not necessarily spur simply from ideological differences; rather tensions grew between the superpowers’ post-WWII misunderstandings of each other’s motives which were misinterpreted as threatening. The value of this book lies in the fact that it approaches the topic of Cold War origins from more than one aspect taking into consideration the perceptions and interests of both superpowers and how the combination of both gave rise to the US-USSR rivalry. The value of this book as a secondary source is also significant as the views presented are not tainted by bias and they are developed with in-depth analysis of events. The limitation of this source is that it does not effectively evaluate the role of Stalin in the rise of Cold War tensions.
‘The memoirs of Marshal Zhukov’ (appendix 2) is written by Marshal Zhukov, a former Soviet career officer in the Red Army and the book has both value and limitations. The purpose of Zhukov’s memoirs is to narrate the events he witnessed from his view as a Soviet officer. The value of this book relates to its origin as a book written by a former Soviet officer. Marshal Zhukov’s political position allows for the narration of events which were hidden from the public eye. This is valuable as it gives an insight into the attitudes and perceptions that were held at the time in which the events took place. However the limitations of this source also relates to its origin as the views presented in the book are tainted by bias as Zhukov’s loyalties lie with the Soviet Union.
D-Analysis:
The origins of the Cold War are considered by many historians to date back to the Bolshevik revolution in 1917. The revolution paved the way for a new ideology to be adopted in Russia. President Woodrow Wilson’s ultimate opposition to the Bolsheviks in Russia displays how ideology caused an instantaneous split between the two powers giving rise to mutual suspicion and mistrust. Wilson’s support of the anti-Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War intensifies America’s keenness to see the downfall of Communism highlights that differences in ideology resulted in a lack of trust in the between America and the Soviet Union long before the Cold War. Ideological differences created a situation where mutual suspicion meant that no trust could be formed between the two powers hence creating the Cold War rivalry. The Grand Alliance formed during World War Two shows the Cold War to be not a complete result of conflicting ideologies but rather also a result of conflicting interests. America, Great Britain and the Soviet Union placed all differences aside and came together with a common cause of defeating Germany.
The desperate need of the allies to defeat Germany is what led to the cooperation which may very well have otherwise never happened. This displays clearly that a common interest can very well bring the two ideologically different camps together. However, a common cause does not necessarily mean that mutual suspicions have vanished. Even during the Grand Alliance Stalin accused his allies of seeking to see the Soviet Union permanently weakened because they delayed creating a second front which would help the Soviets. This displays how, even in times of unity, ideological differences still stained the actions and thoughts of the powers giving rise to suspicions and tension which would aid in creating the Cold War rivalry. The idea that conflicting interests gave rise to Cold War tensions is reinforced post World War Two, when the Grand Alliance began to disintegrate due to different aims particularly during the Potsdam conference in Germany in 1945. After World War Two, the common enemy had been destroyed and so had the only thing which united the two powers. Hence tensions were renewed with no common interest to tame them.
This resulted in many clashes of interests between America and the Soviet Union. Both had the individual aim of increasing their own influence on the world stage while minimising the influence of the other which is evident as President Truman looked to reduce Soviet influence in Eastern Europe but could not as Stalin had already established it through the presence of the Red Army in the region. Had there not been an end to the common interest between the two powers, the Cold War may have been avoided. However, the conflicting interests arose as did heightened suspicions and mistrust between the two powers hence contributing to the creation of the Cold War rivalry. The use of the atomic bombs by the Americans intimidated the Soviet Union in two ways. First and foremost, the use of the atomic bomb shifted the power balance into America’s court which serves to highlight the power struggle between the two powers. The power struggle of Capitalist against Communist in a world devastated by war created tensions between the two superpowers as both aimed to assert their influence and ideology, particularly since the West looked to contain the spread of Communism. America’s use of the atomic bomb also increased tensions as the Soviets interpreted it to be an attempt by the West to intimidate the Communists as well as a weapon of Western imperialism10; a view clearly stained by ideological differences. E-Conclusion:
The mistrust has been present since the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 which saw a drift in ideology instantly result in the deterioration of relations between the two powers. Furthermore the secrecy surrounding the atomic bomb highlights the mistrust between the powers even though they were previously in alliance. The ideology of a nation very much shapes its actions hence the opposite ideologies of America and Soviet Union make both powers very weary of each other as potential threats. Hence to a large extent, the Cold War was a result of conflicting ideologies. While the role of ideology is very prominent in relation to the origins of the Cold War; the role of conflicting interests cannot be ignored either. The two superpowers were united with a common interest of defeating Germany. Hence the renewal of tensions and suspicions came as there was no longer a common cause to unite them. To a large extent the Cold War was a result of conflicting ideologies, however, conflicting interests added fuel to the mistrust and suspicions intensifying the rivalry between the two superpowers.
E-Bibliography:
Books:
Gaddis, J. L. (1972). The United States and Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947. New York City: Columbia University Press. Rogers, K., & Thomas, J. (2008). History The Cold War. New Jersey: Pearson Education Unlimited.
Zhukov G. K. (1971), The memoirs of Marshal Zhukov. New York: Delacorte Press
Tarsis, V. (1970). Russia and the Russians. London: Macdonald & Co.
Foglesong, D.S. (1995). America’s Secret War Against Bolshevism. Carolina:
The University of North Carolina.
Websites:
Potsdam Conference. (2013). Retrieved 9 12, 2013, from Encyclopaedia Britannica: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/472799/Potsdam-Conference
Journal:
BERNSTEIN, B. J. (1995). Understanding the Atomic Bomb and the Japanese Surrender: Missed Opportunities, Little-Know Near Disasters, and Modern Memory. Diplomatic History, 227-223.
Urbanization: City And Public Transport Infrastructure
Introduction
To conclude, population growth and urbanization are happening at a very high rate in the world. This growth has significant impact or foot print on the environment which is threaten the world to lack resources sooner. To cope with this phenomena a number of sustainable development policies are suggested which are designed to avoid the problems to some extent. To what extent can the problems of urbanization be met by a policy of sustainable development?
According to cultural dictionary, the concept of Urbanization means the process by which cities grow .or in other words; urbanization means the movement of people from rural and countryside area to urban or cities. This movement was incredibly increased after industrialization in 1800. According to world urbanization prospect “between 1970 and 1995, the world urbanization rate, measured by the ratio of the urban population to the total population, increased from 37% to 45%… according to projections, this rate will reach 55% in 2015 and more than 60% in 2025” (Cavallier, 1996). In fact, the incredible movements of people add to the problems of urban areas of most countries. The most common problems of urban areas are lack of urban space, transport congestion, pollution, and lack of drinkable water, low housing, and density.
Moreover, the analyses show that the most growth was in developing countries than developed countries. The world is seeking any possible solution for these problems. Scientist, researchers and scholars propose policies of sustainable development. Sustainable development best defined by Brundtland (1987) is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (cited in Adams, 1999). Sustainable development is only possible when people and states make some effort to address the issues such as using natural resources effectively and controlling the polluted waste efficiently (Elliot, 1999). With the reference of proposed policies of sustainable development and technological improvements of humans, one can still be optimistic about the future of urbanization.
One of the major challenges of urbanization is the lack of urban areas. Lack of Urban areas leads to numerous problems in both MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) and LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries). The most common problems are low quality of housing, building houses in informal settlements (shanty towns) and traffic congestion and many others. For instance, Mexico City as a developing country or LEDC is suffering from poor and unplanned settlements, water, land and air pollution and subsidence. The estimation shows living in unplanned settlements are over 40 percent of all Mexico City population. According to Bilham-Boult et.el “housing is the highest priorities for Mexico City… the houses of poor are mostly found on the edges of the city…..
The unplanned, illegal settlement is called “shanty Towns” (Bilham-Boult p.129). Water, land, and air pollution is the other challenge of the “lack of urban area” in Mexico City. Water is mostly polluted because there is not a water supply channel to keep the rainwater separated from domestic and industrial water users. In some cities and mostly the shanty towns which are built illegally don’t have a proper sewerage system. The sewerage is directed into the rivers. Land becomes polluted as result of illegal dumping of industrial waste usually by informal sectors. The most impact of air pollution in Mexico City is the number of cars [4 million of cars] and the hills surrounding the city.
Unlike LEDCs, urbanization in MEDCs is less. However, it still has it effect on the urban areas. For instance, low quality housing; congestion living in inner-city areas, long journey to work, and migration of people out of the tax area of the city are the urban problem in most urban areas of the European countries (Bilham-Bout et.el., 1999). Meanwhile, according to Alex Steven (2005), humans are wildly using the resources and there is one Seatle—a city in the United States with 245 km2 and 120000 population, being created every four days. Therefore, we need another 10 planets to cope with current urbanization and population scale. Only three planets in size of the earth are required for the United States and European citizens (Steffen, TED talks, 2005). Besides the problem of urban space, urban transport is also a major trend of urbanization.
One of the problems of urban transport is congestion in large cities. For instance, congestion is a prevalent problem in Las Angeles, one of the most developed and urban states of the United States. It makes it very difficult for people especially for commuters who daily use transport to their work station. They have to wait hours to get to their job and this result wastage of time and productivity (Thisdell, 1993). Another problem of urban transport is car dependency. 6 million cars were owned by 8.8 million people in Las Angeles ten years ago. This variable is expected to exceed 10.2 million populations by 2010 (Thisdell, 1993). However, a huge number of technologies and sustainable development policies suggested the problems of urbanization. For lack of urban space, researchers suggest discouraging of migration from rural to urban areas. Discouragement is possible when improving conditions in rural areas.
Another, policy is to create job opportunities to the people in rural area. Alongside the mentioned possible policies, increasing the essential life facilities such as health care and education institutions in rural and suburban areas are also a key thing to do to prevent migration to the cities. Another, policy which has a vital role in-migration from rural to urban cities is providing improved transport. Improved transport helps those living out of the cities to commutes daily to the cities. These policies have their direct impact on migration from rural area to the cities (Bilham-Bout, et.al., 1999). In addition, migration from rural areas to the cities needs to be regulated. This policy was successful in Indonesia. Migrating in Indonesia needs permission and people are holding specific identity cards of every region within the state territory. People are involved to challenge their problems through the local council. Local councils are formed to act as citizen’s voices in order to influence the authorities and citizens to cope with all social, environmental, economical and many other problems (Bilham-Bout, et.al., 1999). Another way out of this issue is building smaller metropolitan cities. For instance, Singapore and Hong Kong have built high density buildings around the urban areas. These buildings are much cheaper and affordable to pay and resulted to attract people to live (Bilham-Bout, et.al., 1999).
The other major problem of urban areas is urban transport. Urban transport can be tacked in a number of ways. Researchers suggest for “public transport infrastructure, “pedestrian/Cycle orientation, density planning and control. Improvement of public transport infrastructure does not only shape the cities but decreases traffic congestion and avoids private vehicle dependency. For instance, investment in metros, railways, rapid bus stations as a public transport infrastructure (Newman, 1993). Officials In Los Angeles found the metro the only solution to ease traffic congesting and other relevant problems. This solution is only for MEDS as it is too costly. This system cost Los Angeles $200 million per kilometers (Thisdell, 1993).
Another solution of this issue would be pedestrian or cycle orientation. Creating wide enough, clean, and safe cycling facilities and specific tracks for walking both on streets and public squares (Newman, 1993). Density is another way to address the urban transport issues. Finally, alongside the all the sustainable policies suggested to cope with urban transport, planning and control are the requirement of every suggested policies. It is ensured that none of the suggested policies are only possible if we have planning and control (Newman, 1993). In order to cope with the problems of urbanization, analyst, researchers and governments have suggested many ways of sustainable policies. Alex Steffen (2005) suggests improving infrastructures “by changing the impact we have on environment” world is changeable.
For LEDCs, Alex highly suggests not to invest on last generation technologies (Steffen, TED talks). Governments also suggested a number of sustainable development policies. Most of the efficient policies are discussed in Agenda 21. Agenda 21, include policies such as “the atmosphere, oceans, freshwaters, and water resources, and resource management, deforestation, desertification, mountain environments, sustainable agriculture, and rural development … [as well as] conservation of biological diversity and biotechnology, toxic, hazardous, solid and radioactive wastes” (Adam, p. 142)
To conclude, population growth and urbanization is happening in very high rate in the world. This growth has significant impact or foot print on the environment which is threaten the world to lack resources sooner. and has resulted a number of problems such as poverty, low employment rate, lack of health and education facilities mainly in LEDCs and transport congestion, pollution and low housing facilities in MEDCs .To cope with this phenomena a number of sustainable development policies are suggested which are designed to avoid the problems to some extent. Many well-purposed policies of sustainable developments are will probably avoid problems created by rapid urban growth.
References List
- Adams, M. W. (1999). Sustainability. In P. Cloke, P. Crang & M. Goodwin (Eds.), Introducing human geographies, (pp. 125-130). London: Arnold. Print.
- Bilham-Boult, A., Blades, H., Hancock, J., Keeling, W. & Ridout, M. (1999). People, places and themes, (pp. 202-205). Oxford: Heinemann. Print.
- Elliot, J. A. (1999). An Introduction to Sustainable Development. London: Routledge. Print. Newman, P. (1999). Transport: reducing automobile dependence. In D. Satterthwaite (Ed.), The Earthscan reader in sustainable cities, (pp. 67-92). London: Earthscan Publications. Print
- Thisdell, D. (1993). Can L.A. kick the car habit? New Scientist, 138(1877), 24-29. Print. Alex, S. (2005, December 21). Alex Steffen: The route to a sustainable future. [Video file]. Retrieved from:http://www.ted.com/talks/alex_steffen_sees_a_sustainable_future.html
Gratitude And Thanks
The Vote of Thanks is an important speech given at the end of an event, which can range from 45 seconds to two minutes. It includes expressing gratitude towards those who organized the function, including sponsors, based on the remarks made by speakers and thorough research.
•Summarize the key points: short duration, expressing gratitude to speakers and organizers, prioritizing thanking the main speaker first, acknowledging all speakers if few in number, and expressing gratitude to the organizers.
•Express appreciation to the speakers for their contributions.
•Express gratitude to the organizers for their efforts.
•Begin by thanking the main speaker.
•If the list of speakers is brief, individually acknowledge each of them.
•Conclude by extending thanks to the organizers.
Honourable [name], Respected [name], Mr Chairman, our most valued invited guests, ladies and gentlemen! I am privileged to have been asked to propose a vote of thanks on this occasion. On behalf of [name of the organization of the event], the entire [fraternity /field of interest] present here, and personally, I extend a heartfelt vote of thanks to all speakers for their significant contributions and for sharing their findings and opinions with us today!
[applause]
SAMPLE OPENING PARAGRAPH
Honourable judges, lecturers, students, and esteemed invited guests, ladies and gentlemen! This event was truly remarkable, as it successfully combined both education and entertainment. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who played a part in making this workshop a resounding success.
[applause]
SAMPLE OPENING PARAGRAPH
• The first speaker has already addressed the important people, so it is sufficient to say “ladies and gentlemen” alone.
Dear ladies and gentlemen, as well as our esteemed invited guests, I am deeply honored to be given the opportunity to extend a vote of thanks during this momentous occasion. On behalf of the Child Labour Organization, our dedicated staff, and myself, I would like to sincerely express our gratitude to all the speakers for their commendable efforts,and for generously imparting their valuable research and viewpoints with us today!
[applause]
MIDDLE PARAGRAPHS
Thank the speakers
•Language may vary
•Combine thanks for those who performed similar tasks: “to all the performers we say thanks”, “to all who contributed to the success we are very grateful”
•No need to thank the caterers
•If the list is long, avoid itemising individuals.
Examples
•A big ‘Thank You’ to [name speaker] for their efforts towards [speech topic]. Refer and respond to just one central idea of the speaker that you found particularly interesting.
•If there are more speakers, then consider these vote of thanks examples: I must mention our deep sense of appreciation for [name speaker] for their explanation of [speech topic]. Again, refer…
Additionally, we would like to express our gratitude to [speaker] for their informative presentation on [speech topic]. [Referring to and responding to…]
We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to [name] for providing thorough coverage of [his or her speech topic]. [Refer].
I am grateful to [name] for their support and encouragement in relation to [speech topics] as stated in the previous reference.
I would like to extend my appreciation to [name] for their perceptive analysis, specifically highlighting [point that resonated with me].
We would like to express our gratitude to [name] for presenting their theory on [speech topic].
Your exceptional speech motivates all of us!
[applause]
Examples
Finally, I want to convey our deep thanks to [name], [function] for their outstanding logistical support and guidance throughout [occasion].
I would like to express my gratitude to [name], [function] and [name], [function] for their exceptional teamwork in coordinating this event. Their assistance and support have been immensely appreciated. These vote of thanks samples will serve as valuable resources.
Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, the organization of this event was not a spontaneous happening. It required careful planning and attention to detail for many weeks. Fortunately, we are lucky to have a committed team from [institute, organization] who have the skills needed for their roles and are fully dedicated to achieving our desired outcomes.
I want to express my deep gratitude to all the individuals who took part and pushed their boundaries in order to finish tasks! Please feel free to personalize these instances of thank you messages until you discover the ideal words for the situation.
When showing appreciation, it is crucial to recognize and give thanks to the people who are accountable for the following tasks:
• sending out invitations
• handling technical arrangements
• managing stage setting and lighting
• coordinating musicians
• organizing catering
[applause]
SAMPLE BODY
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To our keynote speaker Jovan Walker who humorously encouraged us to wash our faces with face soaps. Aneita Henry, we knew you were interested in facial products, but we were unaware of your exceptional talent. We extend our gratitude to Recardo Thompson for demonstrating the proper method of washing our face according to our specific skin type with the most suitable soap. We pledge to prioritize the well-being of our skin based on these valuable instructions.
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We want to thank all those who assisted with the banner, offered entertainment, served as ushers, handled light and sound duties, captured photos and videos, and contributed in any capacity to the seminar’s triumph. We sincerely express our gratitude. To everyone present here today, we wholeheartedly appreciate your presence as a kind and attentive audience.
[applause]
FINAL PARAGRAPH
We would like to extend our thanks and appreciation to all the speakers for their presence on this stage. Their participation tonight has been a delightful experience. Thank you very much!
[applause]
It gives me great pleasure to propose this vote of thanks, especially considering how much I have benefited.
Thank you all.
The text within the
tags is “[applause]”.