The increasing number of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) couples has led to a controversial debate over their parenthood. While some states in the United States and other countries in the world permit same sex parenthood, others do not have laws that permit such systems of parenting. The debate concerning the issue of same sex parenthood revolves around the behavior of children raised by LGBT parents. Opponents of the issue allude that children raised by LGBT parents are vulnerable to depression and imbalanced care. On the other hand, proponents argue that same sex parents have the capability to raise children who lead normal and successful lives. The purpose of the study is to examine the behavior of children raised by same sex parents.
Statement of the problem
The issue of parenting is fundamental and requires lots of attention. It is critical to elucidate that parenting is one of the foundations of humanity. As such, parents need to be individuals who inculcate attributes that positively affect the lives of children. In the absence of proper parenthood, children grow in a manner that hampers their success. Imperatively, the behavior of a child is closely related to the manner in which parents raise them. Rokis (2014) elucidates that children need a well-balanced system of parenthood, which instills values and virtues that advance the quality of their lives. Conversely, the issue of LGBT parenthood has raised concerns from proponents and opponents. The debate revolves around the issue of parenting and whether the children raised by LGBT families acquire similar care and attention like those raised by normal families. In addition, the debate has also led to the deprivation of rights that LGBT families should enjoy, which include parenting.
Practically, the problem associated with the behavior of children raised by LGBT families concern limited research. The limited amount of available research implies that the findings demonstrate a scale of bias. It is vital to explain that the issues advanced by opponents and proponents of LGBT parenthood are important and need due diligence from scholars. A scrutiny of the issues facilitates a successful examination of the behavior that children raised by LGBT families demonstrate. Moreover, it is important to understand whether the assertions presented by the various scholars are authentic and applicable. According to Haney-Caron and Heilbrun (2014), arguments concerning same sex parenthood are crucial and need extensive research, which yields conclusive results. By engaging in extensive research, the findings will not only be authentic but will also reflect the actual state in the field. As such, the imminent problem, which relates to whether children raised by same sex parents demonstrate positive behavior, receives the requisite redress.
Aim of the Research
To assess the impact that same sex parents have on the behavior of their children.
Research Questions
- Do same sex parents affect the behavior of their children positively?
- Do same sex parents affect the behavior of their children negatively?
- Should more states and countries institute laws that permit same sex parenting?
Literature Review
Introduction
Over time, the issue of same sex couples and the rising demand that they become parents and raise children has triggered controversy between opponents and proponents. The rising number of LGBT families led to their desire to have children and enjoy the privileges associated with parenthood. According to various studies undertaken by those who oppose the issue of same sex parenting, children raised by same sex parents may be deficient of balanced care, gender roles, and maybe subjects of violence. Consequently, those who support the issuing state that the children raised by same sex parents lead normal lives, and in some cases, acquire talents that may not have been possible if normal families raised them. To understand whether same sex parenting has a positive or negative impact on child behavior, the literature review uses three research questions that guide its examination of the issue. The questions help in assessing the positive and negative impact that same sex parenting has on child behavior. Furthermore, the questions address whether more countries should institute laws that permit same sex parenting.
Theoretical Framework
To examine the behavior of children raised by same sex parents effectively, there is a need to understand the role played by behavioral theories. By studying behavioral theories, the level of understanding in relation to parenthood and the effect that parents have on child behavior augments. Theories such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning are some of the theories, which are very instrumental in the examination of the impact that same sex parents have on child behavior.
Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical Conditioning Theory is a theory advanced by Ivan Pavlov and focuses on behavior and the effect of conditioning. According to Ivan, the behavior of certain animals that comprised dogs changed when certain activities happened repeatedly. In his observation, Ivan realized that by pairing the sound of the bell with meat powder, the dog, which was the subject of his study, salivated. According to Lineros and Hinojosa (2012), after pairing meat powder with the sound, the dog developed a conditioned response towards the sound and started salivating upon hearing it. The dog salivated because it realized that meat powder accompanied the sound of the bell. As such, the sound of the bell conditioned the dog’s behavior to an extent that salivation occurred each time the dog heard the sound. The conclusion of Ivan was on the fact that behavior is subject to conditioning which has a significant impact on the eventuality of one’s character.
The theory further improved when philosophers such as John Watson changed the subjects from animals to human beings. In his study, Watson decided to try the theory using a young boy, Albert, who was 11 years old. The philosopher paired a frightening sound with white rats. Watson ensured that the sound occurred each time the rats appeared. Overtime, the young boy developed fear towards the white rats, which he associated with the frightening sound. In the studies by Watson and Pavlov, it is clear that behavior is conditioned by certain repeated stimuli that create a conditioned response. According to Afolabi (2013), salivation occasioned by the bell is conditioned stimuli. On the other hand, the fear of white rats was conditioned stimuli. Therefore, it is evident that human behavior can change positively or negatively depending on the scale and nature of conditioning, which people receive as they grow.
Operant Conditioning Theory
Operant Conditioning Theory is a behavioral theory introduced and coined by Burrhus Skinner. The theory emphasizes on the effect that reinforcements and punishments have on the behavior of an individual. According to Skinner, human behavior changes according to the outcome initiated by their activities (Omomia & Omomia, 2014; Remington, Osmanski, & Wang, 2012). For instance, if a person smokes and is reprimanded, then the person is unlikely to continue smoking. In this context, reprimand acts as a punisher and discourages the person from continued smoking. Consequently, if an individual undertakes an activity and receives appreciation, the likelihood of repeating the activity is high. The appreciation received in the aftermath of engaging in the activity is a reinforcement, which encourages the person to adopt the activity.
From the research, Skinner used animals such as mice to undertake the activities and observed the results. Skinner placed the animals in a box with incentives that served as reinforcements or punishments. Overtime the animals refrained from activities that initiated punishments and focused on activities that acted as reinforcements. Schlinger (2008) asserts that Operant Conditioning Theory states that reinforcements may be rewards, appreciation, and positive regard accorded to a person after undertaking an activity deemed as good by the society or caregivers. Conversely, punishers comprise reprimands and disciplinary actions, which focus on discouraging a person from executing certain activities that are not right before the caregivers and the society. Overtime, individuals adopt behaviors that initiate reinforcements and desist from those that lead to punishments.
Relevance of Classical and Operant Conditioning Theories
Classical and operating conditioning theories are relevant in the examination of same sex parenthood and child behavior. In the context of Classical Conditioning Theory, the study assesses whether same sex parents and parents of the opposite sex execute the components of the theory in guiding their children. It is essential to outline the fact that if the caregivers accord all the provisions outlined by the theory, which espouse conditioning the child behavior positively, then the findings will be useful. The relevance of using the findings from those parents who apply the provisions of the theory takes effect because effective application of the provisions yields positive results. The positive outcomes are apparent in several studies that discuss parenting among normal families. Pornpitakpan (2012) explains that Classical Conditioning Theory is one of the practical theories that help improve the quality of care and child behavior in families. As such, by using the theory, the study not only amplifies its findings, but also makes them valid and reliable.
Consequently, Operant Conditioning Theory is another theory used by families to improve the quality of parenthood. In the perspective of Connor and Scott (2007), Operant Conditioning Theory is very essential in augmenting the quality of care that parents accord to their children. Practically, by applying the principles, children adopt the best behaviors and in the end become successful citizens. To advance the quality of the findings, the study will focus on the presence of the principles among the sample studied. Presence of these principles and their application in families implies that a defect may not be a result of poor parenting, but instead, may be due to an outcome initiated by the type of families that raise the children. As a result, a scrutiny on the presence of the theory is core in creating a distinction between poor parenting and identifying the impact that same sex parents have on child behavior.
Parenthood among Same Sex Families
While the issue of parenthood among same sex families continues to trigger debates, the rate of LGBT families that are continually raising children is on the rise. Apparently, several LGBT families become parents through a number of ways. Hopkins, Sorensen, and Taylor (2013) state that some of the ways through which LGBT families become parents include insemination, surrogacy, and adoption. In addition, some LGBT families may retain their children born from former relationships. Insemination is one of the methods that lesbians use and it entails an agreement where a man accepts to donate his sperm and one of the lesbian couple carries and delivers the baby.
Consequently, in surrogacy gay families approach a woman and request her to carry and deliver the baby for them after being fertilized by one of the gay couples (Goldberg & Allen, 2013). Thereafter, the surrogate mother hands the baby over to the gay family, who take up the role of parenting. Adoption is a method that works for all the LGBT families and entails adoption of children and an eventual acquisition of their parentage rights. Consequently, some LGBT families may have had children during their former relationships and retain them even after their change of identity.
Effect of Same Sex Parents on Child Behavior
Positive Effect
Motivation and open mindedness
Motivation is one of the positive effects that are evident from studies done concerning the positive impact of same sex parents on child behavior. Past studies done by Marks (2012) and Abbott (2012), outline that children raised by same sex families have high levels of motivation unlike those brought up by parents of the opposite sex. Motivation that is apparent from the behavior of children raised by same sex parents emanates from the motivation that their parents demonstrate. It is vital to explain that LGBT families plan and decide to raise children unlike in some normal families where conception may take place without the consent of all the parties. As such, LGBT parents demonstrate the willingness to raise the children and because of the well-designed parenting plans, motivation becomes practical. The high level of motivation demonstrated by the parents bringing up the children is eventually passed down to them though classical and operant conditioning.
Another positive effect that same sex parents instill on their children to influence their behavior positively is open mindedness. Children raised by same sex parents are likely to be open-minded as they grow up, a factor that makes them interactive and creative all through their lives. A study done by Shields et al. (2012), claim that children raised by gay families are likely to be open-minded unlike those who come from normal families. The open-minded nature evident in the character of children raised by same sex families transpires because the children receive unique care. Moreover, the commitment, which manifests through care accorded by same sex parents, augments the scale of value inculcation on the children, a factor that leads to open mindedness and development of a good character.
Negative Effects
Depression and imbalanced care
Depression and imbalanced care are some of the negative behavioral effects associated with same sex parenting. In coining the aspect of depression among children raised by LGBT families, Power et al. (2012) allude that the unique nature of the families at times plunges the children into a state of depression. Furthermore, since majority of the children raised by LGBT families do not have a biological connection with their caregivers, they are often depressed because some of them may not know their biological parents. Connor and Scott (2007) state that depriving children from knowing their biological parents is one the factors, which initiates depression among children raised by LGBT families. Notably, after an understanding of the family setup that they are growing in, the children tend to isolate themselves and in some cases stay away from others in the society. It is imperative to outline the fact that other children in the society may ridicule their colleagues raised by same sex parents and trigger depression among the children.
Imbalanced care is evident in the manner in which same sex parents acquire the children. Children raised by same sex parents receive imbalanced care from their guardians. In the words of Marks (2012), children, who grow up in LGBT families, can acquire biased characteristics. While some may be too feminine, others can be more masculine. The bias in behavior affects their growth and interaction with others in the society. For optimum growth and development, children need care and affection from a mother and a father, a position that is deficient in LGBT families (Farr, Forssell, & Patterson, 2010; Herbst & Tekin, 2010). The claim affirms the imbalanced nature of care that children raised by same sex parents receive. Practically, imbalance in care is an effect associated with same sex parenting which influences the behavior of the child negatively.
Methodology
Research Design
The study will employ descriptive case study as research design in studying the influence of same sex parents on the behavior of children. Baxter and Jack (2008) explain that case study offers an in-depth study of individuals, groups, or populations with unique attributes that identify them and set them apart as cases. Descriptive case study is an appropriate design because the study will focus on children with same sex parents and describe their behavior with a view of identifying unique behavioral changes when compared to children under normal family setup. Creswell (2009) as well as Bordens and Abbott (2014) argue that descriptive case studies provide comprehensive information about individuals, groups, or populations. Essentially, descriptive case study explicates and illuminates cases of interest.
Target Population
The target population in this study is children of same sex parents. Since proponents and opponents of same sex parents argue that same sex parents have positive and negative influences on children, the study of behavior changes among children in same sex families would illuminate and expound on the issue of parenting. Moreover, the study would elucidate the influence of families on growth and development of children. Hence, the study will target children in same sex families who are in various schools from the first grade through to the ninth grade for they are at the critical stages of growth and development.
Sampling Method
Since children with same sex parents are few in the society, the study will use convenience method of sampling in selecting study participants. Convenience method of sampling is advantageous because it enhances representation of population, increases external validity of the findings, and saves time and resources of sampling (Creswell, 2009). The study will aim to select 50 children from families with same sex parents and examine them as cases of the study. Moreover, the study will classify children into different groups according to the sexual orientation of their parents, that is, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender parents.
Research Instruments
The study will use questionnaires as research instruments in collecting data regarding the influence of same sex parents on the behavior of children. Fundamentally, the study will use structured and unstructured questionnaires to ensure that it collects comprehensive and relevant information about the behavior of children with same sex parents. According to Baxter and Jack (2008), questionnaires are appropriate research instruments in case study for they collect both qualitative and quantitative data. Therefore, the study will design questionnaires and determine their reliability and validity before using them in collecting data of interest related to the behavior of children with same sex parents.
Data Collection
The study will collect data regarding the behavior of children under families with same sex parents. Prior to the study, the researcher will seek ethical clearance from the relevant authorities and schools where the children learn. Moreover, the researcher will seek informed consent from parents and teachers before undertaking the study. Since teachers understand the behavior of their pupils, the study will use them in filling questionnaires. The researcher will request teachers to undertake independent and impartial assessment of behaviors of the sampled children by filling questionnaires.
Data Analysis
The study will employ qualitative and quantitative techniques in the analysis of the collected data. In the analysis of the qualitative data, the study will use thematic analysis to determine patterns and trends, which indicate behaviors of children with same sex parents. Furthermore, the study will use descriptive statistics in the analysis of the quantitative data collected in the questionnaires.
Conclusion
The issue of same sex parenting is on the rise. The rising nature of same sex parenting takes place because of the increasing number of LGBT families. While the issue has received support from some scholars, it has equally received criticism from those who oppose it. Proponents explain that the issue has advantages such as motivation and open-mindedness, whereas opponents state that same sex parenting can lead to depression and imbalanced care. Theories such as classical and operating conditioning are very important in explicating the role played by parents in dictating child behavior. It is important to allude that same sex parenting is an issue that continues to raise controversy and debate.
References
Abbott, D. (2012). Do lesbian couples make better parents than heterosexual couples? International journal of humanities and social science, 2(13), 30-46.
Afolabi, M. (2013). Beyond organic aetiology: Exploring a psychocognitive approach to gastric ulceration. International journal of behavioral research & psychology(IJBRP), 1(1), 1-4.
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The qualitative report, 13(4), 544-559.
Bordens, K. S., & Abbott, B. B. (2014). Research and design methods: A process approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Connor, T., & Scott, S. (2007).Parenting and outcomes for children. London, UK: Kings College.
Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative and mixed methods approaches. New York, NY: Sage Publisher.
Farr, R., Forssell, S., & Patterson, C. (2010). Parenting and child development in adoptive families: Does parental sexual orientation matter? Applied developmental science, 14(3), 164–178.
Goldberg, A., & Allen, K. (2013). LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice. New York, NY: Springer.
Haney-Caron, E., & Heilbrun, K. (2014). Lesbian and gay parents and determination of child custody: The changing legal landscape and implications for policy and practice. Psychology of sexual orientation and gender diversity, 1(1), 19-29.
Herbst, C., & Tekin, E. (2010). Child care subsidies and child development. Economics of education review, 29(4), 618-638.
Hopkins, J., Sorensen, A., & Taylor, V. (2013). Same‐sex couples, families, and marriage: Embracing and resisting heteronormativity. Sociology compass, 7(2), 97-110.
Lineros, J., & Hinojosa, M. (2012).Theories of learning and student development. National forum of teacher education journal, 22(3), 1-5.
Marks, L. (2012). Same-sex Parenting and children’s outcomes: A closer examination of the American Psychological Association’s brief on lesbian and gay parenting. Social science research, 41(4), 735-751.
Omomia, A., & Omomia, T. (2014). Relevance of Skinner’s theory of reinforcement on effective school evaluation and management. European journal of psychological studies, 4(4), 174-180.
Pornpitakpan, C. (2012). A critical review of classical conditioning effects on consumer behavior. Australasian marketing journal (AMJ), 20(4), 282-296.
Power, J., Perlesz, A., McNair, R., Schofield, M., Pitts, M., Brown, R., & Bickerdike, A. (2012). Gay and bisexual dads and diversity: Fathers in the work, love, play study. Journal of family studies, 18(2-3), 143-154.
Remington. E., Osmanski. M., & Wang. X. (2012). An Operant conditioning method for studying auditory behaviors in marmoset monkeys. Plos one 7(10), 1-7.
Rokis, R. (2014). Work-care balance among parents-workers in Malaysian urban organizations: Role and quality of children’s daycare centers. New York, NY: Routledge.
Schlinger, H. (2008). Conditioning the behavior of the listener. International journal of psychology and psychological therapy, 8(3), 309-322.
Shields, L., Zappia, T., Blackwood, D., Watkins, R., Wardrop, J., & Chapman, R. (2012). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender parents seeking health care for their children: A systematic review of the literature. Worldviews on evidence‐based nursing, 9(4), 200-209.
The Use Of Vapocoolants: Systematic Appraisal
Introduction
Vapocoolants are often used by healthcare practitioners in order to reduce pain in patients while performing such procedures as venipuncture and intravenous (IV) cannulation. These procedures can cause some discomfort, and the use of vapocoolants can potentially lead to reducing negative experiences of patients. However, the problem is in the fact that there are only a few studies that demonstrate positive results, and researchers and practitioners have no single idea regarding the appropriateness of using vapocoolants in adults and children. In their systematic review, Hogan, Smart, Shah, and Taddio (2014) concentrated on studying this problem in detail. The PICO(T) question that is formulated to focus on the problem is the following one: In adults and children, is the use of vapocoolants compared to no treatment or placebo effective in reducing pain before venipuncture and IV cannulation? The purpose of the systematic review was to examine the literature on the topic of using vapocoolants in order to analyze the results systematically and conclude regarding safety and effectiveness of this approach to be applied to the work with adult and young patients. The researchers searched such databases as EMBASE, CINAHL, MEDLINE, and Cochrane Central Register of Trials.
Search Methods
While organizing the search of appropriate articles in four databases, the researchers reviewed 999 abstracts, and they also excluded 963 works. As a result, only 36 full papers were reviewed by Hogan et al. (2014) in order to assess their quality and include them in the final list of articles that were selected for the further analysis. After excluding 24 articles from 36 previously selected papers, only 12 articles were included by researchers in the final meta-analysis. Thus, in their search for the most appropriate articles, Hogan et al. (2014) used the set inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Findings
It is important to concentrate on three major findings of this study because they are helpful to answer the formulated research question and conclude about the effectiveness of using vapocoolants in adults and children. The first result of the systematic review conducted by Hogan et al. (2014) is that vapocoolants were found to be ineffective to reduce pain in children while comparing the outcomes with the use of placebo and no treatment. The second important result is related to using vapocoolants while performing procedures for adults. It was found that vapocoolants were ineffective to be applied to adults while comparing the effects with placebo. However, vapocoolants were more effective in reducing pain in adults while comparing the results to no treatment. The third main result is that the use of vapocoolants was found to be the more uncomfortable practice than the use of placebo sprays, as it was reported by adults. The problem was in pain associated with applying vapocoolants. Still, the data related to children’s experiences were not available.
Level of Evidence
Researchers identify five levels of evidence that are marked as Level I-Level V. These levels differ in terms of the type of evidence that is presented in articles. If a study is designed as an experiment, a randomized controlled trial, or a systematic review of randomized controlled trials, the evidence is discussed as belonging to Level I. It is important to note that Level I evidence is of the highest quality because these studies can be controlled effectively, and they test certain assumptions and hypotheses while using appropriate tools. Level II evidence is associated with quasi-experimental studies and systematic reviews where not all papers are randomized controlled trials, and there can be quasi-experimental studies that are included in a review. The quality of such evidence is lower.
Level III evidence is associated with such types of research design as non-experimental studies, qualitative studies, and systematic reviews that also include non-experimental studies. Level IV evidence is identified when articles present opinions of experts, or they are proposed as reports of authorities in a certain area. Level V evidence is associated with information collected with the help of literature reviews and case reports, as well as experts’ opinions of some type. Therefore, the stronger evidence is associated with Level I in contrast to Level V evidence. The systematic review conducted by Hogan et al. (2014) represents Level I evidence because it includes only randomized controlled trials and quasi-randomized controlled trials, but it does not mean that the study refers to quasi-experimental works.
Conclusion
In their paper, the researchers concluded that vapocoolants were ineffective means to change adults’ and children’s experiences and reduce pain that was associated with venipuncture and intravenous cannulation. Thus, the use of vapocoolants was absolutely ineffective with reference to children’s experiences, and it was partially effective with the focus on adults because the procedure was successful while comparing the results to no treatment, but there were no positive changes while comparing the results to placebo. Furthermore, the application of vapocoolants caused pain in adults. Therefore, this approach was not recommended by the researchers for the regular use in healthcare facilities.
While focusing on the proposition to make the use of vapocoolants a standard procedure to reduce pain, it is possible to state that such procedure can be ineffective, and it will not lead to expected positive changes in patients’ experiences. In order to conclude about the procedure’s effectiveness and make a decision, it is possible to refer to systematic reviews in the area in order to provide more reasonable arguments to support a personal position. However, while referring to the examined evidence, it is important to recommend the use of vapocoolants only in adults and in cases when patients ask healthcare providers to use some medications or means to reduce pain. In situations when there is no focus on reducing pain during venipuncture and intravenous cannulation procedures, it is preferable not to use vapocoolants because they can cause even more pain in adults. While providing the care to children, the use of vapocoolants should also be avoided. To assess all possible advantages and disadvantages of using vapocoolants, it is also important to recommend searching for more data on the problem.
Reference
Hogan, M. E., Smart, S., Shah, V., & Taddio, A. (2014). A systematic review of vapocoolants for reducing pain from venipuncture and venous cannulation in children and adults. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 47(6), 736-749.
Women’s Health Assessment And Diagnostics
History-Taking
At the beginning of the work, it is pivotal to take a complete medical history from the patient to exclude problems with other systems of the body. When interviewing the patient, special attention must be paid to potential pregnancy, sexual history, past gynecological diseases, changes in general health condition, the characteristics of vaginal discharge, and menstruation history. The following details should be clarified about menstruation: whether periods are regular, the first day of the LMP, the length of the cycle, period heaviness, the presence of pain, the characteristics (color, odor, etc.) of the menstruum, and the presence of metrorrhagia. Also, the questions concerning abnormal bleeding between periods/after sex and the age of menarche should be asked.
Questions related to sexual history and contraception should also be included in the interview to understand the nature of the condition. In particular, the patient should be asked about the recent sexual activity, types of sexual contacts (heterosexual/homosexual; oral/anal/vaginal) practiced the total number of partners, the cases of unprotected sex/accidental contacts/rape, partners’ STD history, personal hygiene before/after contacts, preferred methods of contraception. Also, it is pivotal to include questions about the presence of dyspareunia, genital traumas, STD history, and pregnancy symptoms.
The patient reports having abnormal vaginal discharge, and she needs to be interviewed about its characteristics. Among them are its color (white, clear, yellow, green, etc.), smell, frequency, volume, and the circumstances in which it appears (after coitus, periods, at the beginning/end of the monthly flux) (Hasan & Ocviyanti, 2016). Also, given that having discharge is the chief complaint, the girl should be asked about any abnormal symptoms that she or her partner’s notice (eruptions, itchiness, pain), her smear history, pregnancies, miscarriages, and abortions. The information concerning general health condition (the history of substance/alcohol abuse, abnormal weight changes, breast lumps/discharge, and dermatological issues should also be taken into account.
Physical Examination
Before performing a physical examination, it is critical to explain the purpose of the procedure to the patient and obtain her written permission. Importantly, to maintain dignity, the patient should be allowed to use a panel screen when undressing. First, the patient’s general physical condition should be analyzed to identify skin color changes, abnormal weight, or fever. Then, a vaginal examination should be performed to ensure that there are no skin damages, lumps, or eruptions. During an intravaginal examination, special equipment such as bivalve speculum needs to be used to evaluate the patient’s vaginal walls, the cervix, and check the presence of lumps or other abnormal signs (Dabson, Magin, Heading, & Pond, 2014). The symptoms that the patient reports can often be caused by retained foreign bodies such as tampons or condoms, and their presence should also be checked (Zuckerman & Romano, 2016). If there is any discharge, a cervical smear should be taken with the help of clean cervical brushes.
The Plan of Care
The patient’s chief complaints (abnormal discharge and a foul odor) can be related to a range of gynecological diseases, and the plan of care should be constructed about all potential diagnoses. The symptoms the patient reports are manifested in women with bacterial vaginosis, candidal vaginitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, or STDs such as trichomoniasis and chlamydiosis (Hasan & Ocviyanti, 2016).
An important component of the care plan is excluding pregnancy with the help of pregnancy tests (urine, blood) and analyzing hCG levels. Considering the key symptoms, the sexual history of the patient, and the characteristics of discharge, STD diagnostic tests are necessary (cervical specimens are to be collected). Trichomonas vaginalis or other parasites can be detected with the help of traditional wet preparation microscopy tests (Van Der Pol, 2015). In certain cases, abnormal discharge indicates cancer; consequently, if some lumps are detected during the examination, cancer screening can also be included in the plan of care.
The use of treatments would depend on the final diagnosis and the patient’s pregnancy status. With that in mind, treatments that can be used in the case under analysis vary from various medications such as antibiotics to surgical operations. Disregard of the diagnosis, the patient should be provided with recommendations concerning self-hygiene and sexual life. To begin with, sexual contacts (especially vaginal) are to be avoided during treatment to prevent further exacerbation of symptoms. Also, the development of proper hygiene habits is extremely important to avoid irritation and itching. Consideration should also be given to the choice of self-hygiene products that would not dry the patient’s skin and impair pH balance.
Common Infections in Sexually Active Women
Sexual activity is associated with increased risks of urinary and vaginal infections in adult women. Nowadays, the most common urinary infections in the specified population group are urethritis and cystitis, the conditions that are often caused by sexually transmitted infections (John, Mboto, & Agbo, 2016). Vaginal infections that are common in the population under analysis are trichomoniasis and bacterial vaginosis (Hasan & Ocviyanti, 2016). The prevalence of the diseases may vary depending on race – it is usually higher for racial minorities due to economic constraints and the lack of STD prevention knowledge.
References
Dabson, A. M., Magin, P. J., Heading, G., & Pond, D. (2014). Medical students’ experiences learning intimate physical examination skills: A qualitative study. BMC Medical Education, 14(1), 39. Web.
Hasan, F. D., & Ocviyanti, D. (2016). Identifying causes of vaginal discharge: The role of gynecologic symptoms and signs. Indonesian Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (INAJOG), 3(1), 3-10.
John, A. S., Mboto, C. I., & Agbo, B. (2016). A review on the prevalence and predisposing factors responsible for urinary tract infection among adults. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 6(4), 7-11.
Van Der Pol, B. (2015). Clinical and laboratory testing for Trichomonas vaginalis infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 54(1), 7-12.
Zuckerman, A., & Romano, M. (2016). Clinical recommendation: Vulvovaginitis. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 29(6), 673-679.