The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposed significant changes with regard to the aspects of corporate governance as a responding mechanism to address the increasing cases of corporate mismanagement, managerial issues and cases of misrepresentation by the executive board members (Brigham, & Ehrhardt, 2011). The legislation was passed with high hopes of developing managerial controls that would prohibit the management from manipulating the firm’s financial placement to the disadvantage of the company’s creditors, the government, investors, and the larger public. The main concern regarding the Sarbanes-Oxley Act is whether it offers effective frameworks for preventing the falsification of a firm’s financial statements or not. For instance, after the collapse of the Enron Corporation, there was a necessity for changes in practices for corporate governance and auditing. The main ideas of the required changes were directed at ensuring the credibility of the financial statements (Brigham, & Ehrhardt, 2011). There were many reasons for changes, such as various accounting problems and obstacles in conducting quality audit procedures. These and many other reasons resulted in the adoption of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. In the article, the Act explores the changes that the legislation has imposed on the boards of the corporations found in the United States. This paper critiques the article and discusses how it is related to financial management.
The author states that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act offers a precise mandate for publicly owned corporations to implement reforms in financial management to avoid manipulation and distortion of financial statements by the directors and the management team. The act provides clear auditing practices for public corporations (Valenti, 2008). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act has stated the following rules for auditors and audit committees. First of all, the companies bear responsibility for independent auditing. Auditors and audit committees should not offer other services different from their direct responsibilities. Therefore, the companies are unable to ask auditors to cope with management, complete investment pieces of advice, etc. The restrictions are put on the employment of auditors, who are forbidden to occupy chef positions in the companies they have served within one year. An auditor oversight board should be organized based on SEC review in accordance with new legislation. The financial statement in public organizations has been regulated and firm restrictions have been applied. The company should be responsible for increasing its auditing information, especially if the company is covered in a special list or belongs to a public one. Moreover, the Act is directed at revealing off-balance-sheet transactions the company implements. The companies should understand that the violation of the Act means a violation of the federal law and leads to punishment, either a fine or imprisonment, depending on the cruelty of the violation. The Act under discussion states the level of penalties (Valenti, 2008).
Thus, the main idea of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is to regulate the behavior of the accountants and the companies which require accounting services. The revised Act is aimed at outlining the accounting and non-accounting services, the ones which can be completed by accountants and those which are not, and at eliminating the compromising of audit independence (Valenti, 2008). The new act defines policies, procedures, and practices audit companies can and should perform, their actions and penalties in case of law violation.
References
Brigham, E. F., & Ehrhardt, E. C. (2011). Financial management: Theory and practice. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.
Valenti, A. (2008). The sarbanes-oxley act of 2002: Has it brought about changes in the boards of large U. S. corporations? Journal of Business Ethics , 81 (2), 401-412.
Mexican Revolution In “The Underdog” By Mariano Azuela
The Underdog is a novel by Mariano Azuela that reflects on the experiences and historical background of the Mexican Revolution. It also focuses on the political and personal devastation of people who took part in the rebellions and struggles against the established order. The military conflict has been brightly illustrated and criticized in the book; it also provides details of the greatest upheaval that occurred in the past century. Criticism of Revolution also premises on the overt displays of injustices and cruelties that gave rise to the new movements of peasants in Mexico. Through active use of narrative style, particularly informal speech, the author strives to emphasize the reality of the Mexican Revolutionary Scene.
The use of Mexican terms and informal speech appeals to the social, political, and intellectual context, in which the Revolution took place, which is among the most evident features that Azuela employs. In particular, the author gives simple Christian names to his protagonists, such as Parnacracio, Agapita, Camila, and Marfa Antonia, although Demetrio’s wife is left without a name. Interestingly, none of the enumerated characters has nicknames, except for Luis Cervantes who is addressed as Curro in the novel, which means “tenderfoot”.
Similarly, Margarito Arando is also called El Guero, which stands for a blond person in English. Such nicknames are usually given to people of non-Mexican origin yet speaking the Spanish language. Therefore, various meanings assigned to names and nicknames shape the moral and cultural framework for analyzing other aspects and elements of the novel.
In the novel, Azuela highlights his disappointment with the corrupted government and society, which lead to the upheaval of the revolutionary movement. In the pursuit of dominance and power, people start expressing their ambition to gain control over their lands and overthrow the existing government. By presenting the bright and notable characters, the author attempts to deliver an emotionally colored meaning of the revolution, as well as release new dimensions in representing Mexican society.
The use of vernacular language, therefore, is one of the leading techniques that seek to convey the spirits of the time. As an example, the author makes of numerous authentic words, such as senior, amigo, aguardiente, cacique, etc. Even the English speech is also informally represented in dialogues: “I gonna give the one riding on the edge of the trail a bath…I’ll dunk you in the river, damn mocho!”1. Therefore, the story focuses on the analysis of humble peasants who strive to receive freedom.
The hero’s cultural and socio-political backgrounds are highlighted through their speech patterns. About the above-described characteristics, Mariano Azuela has become the pioneer in establishing the standards for the modern Mexican language. It fully grasps the realities of the Mexican Revolution through the depiction of the fates of people being under the political and social pressure of the governmental regime.
In conclusion, Azuela’s The Underdogs focuses on the hard experiences of the Mexican society in their fight for freedom from the established order. The use of Mexican terms in calling the government, the military power, and peasants contributes to the mood and spirit of the novel. Apart from the real historical representation of the revolution, the novel is also a personal outlook of the author on the events that happened in the twentieth century. Although the majority of the protagonists are given nicknames, the main heroes of the story are signified with real names. In such a manner, the author strives to emphasize their authentic origin.
Bibliography
Azuela Mariano. The Underdogs: Pictures and Scenes from the Present Revolution: A Translation of Mariano Azuela’s Los De Abajo with Related Texts. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2006.
Footnotes
Mariano Azuela. The Underdogs: Pictures and Scenes from the Present Revolution: A Translation of Mariano Azuela’s Los De Abajo with Related Texts. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2006).6.
Women In Classical Rhetorical Theory During Ancient Times
Introduction
The classical rhetorical theory dated back to the 5th Century BCE has been used by many great philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Isocrates. Whether these rhetoricians were orators or writers, they all used this theory to influence their audience and spread messages to their listeners (“Rhetoric in ancient times”, n.d.). Despite the fact that there were many restrictions on women’s rights in ancient times, they also have used the classical rhetorical theory to share their wisdom and were teachers of rhetoric. An example of it is the research on Aspasia and Sappho.
Background
The classical rhetorical theory has been used since ancient times to this day. The study of this conceptual flow started with ancient philosophers. It has been around since people began pronouncing words and realizing that it has some impact on listeners (“Classical rhetorical theory”, 2014). It seeks the understanding of persuasion and how it is used correctly. As a consequence, the ability to perform in public in the ancient world reached its height (Herrick, 1907). Though rhetoric may seem more powerful through spoken words, many men and women practiced it by writing to unify cultures and help political thoughts. For instance, Ancient Athens was a great location for the use of rhetoric with democratic reform.
Research
In many cultures of the ancient world, women had to contend with the conventions and rules set by men. It cannot be denied that the latter had a dominant position in public life and government. Therefore, it is no coincidence that many images of women in literature and myths written by ancient male writers are presented in such a manner as to blame women for the problems of the world.
In particular, in ancient Greece, women were not recognized as complete citizens of the country and could not work at specific jobs and attend certain events. As known, many women stayed in the house most of the time due to their restrictions on daily living except for when there were occasions of religious festivals to attend. As a consequence, rhetorical research has also made women silent and invisible for over 2,500 years.
Nevertheless, at the present time, studies led by feminist scholars have the reason of the knowledge of at least two Greek women who have made significant contributions to the study of rhetoric. They broke convention and matched their male counterparts in their research on the word and its effect on listeners. One of those women was Aspasia, which was a female rhetorician, influential teacher, and orator in Classical Greece of the 5th century BCE (“Women in the history of rhetoric”, n.d.). Aspasia was one of the few women mentioned in classical rhetorical theory. In many arguments, it is talked about how it impacted the writing of Pericles’ famous “Funeral Oration” (“Women in the history of rhetoric”, n.d.) It was considered that she had a significant influence on Socrates, and some other famous philosophers, sharing what she knows about rhetoric and her political skill with them.
On the one hand, theatrical performances and texts from that period portrayed her as a foreigner and a woman of easy virtue. On the other hand, Greek philosophers, in contrast, spoke of her with undisguised admiration in many of their dialogues. During her stay in Athens, she gave birth to a son with Pericles and faced an rejection due to her immigrant status (“Women in the history of rhetoric”, n.d.). As a consequence, even respected women dealt with negative attitudes.
No original writings created by Aspasia have survived since that time. In spite of it, she is mentioned in famous philosophical texts such as Symposium, Menexenus, Memorabilia, and Oeconomicus (“Women in the history of rhetoric”, n.d.). In particular, Socrates is frequently portrayed in it as praising the wisdom and experience of Aspasia. As a result, research on female mentoring and classical rhetoric might significantly benefit from the inclusion of writings on Aspasia.
Another woman who contributed to the classical rhetorical theory was Sappho. She was an early 6th century BCE writer from the island of Lesbos in Greece, from an aristocratic family (“Women in the history of rhetoric”, n.d.). It is reliably known few facts about her biography, but it is believed that she had several brothers and a daughter. Sappho is considered the author of the first elegies, iambs, and epigrams and wrote a number of Hellenistic poems. She was known for her dialect, which many other Greeks did not understand, and became famous for her lyric poetry on romantic themes, in which she wrote about desires, especially between women.
Conclusion
To conclude, although men’s dominant position in public life and government during ancient times, among the classical rhetorical theory followers, were not only they but also women. This theory helps them identify the art of persuasion to attract an audience, be an influential teacher, speaker, and convey the thoughts of a lyrical nature. Aspasia and Sappho were teachers of it and wanted to get their point across through writing and spreading their knowledge. Although women, especially immigrant ones, were mistreated during this historical period in Athens, these rare examples of respect for them provide glimpses of women’s influence in shaping the classical theory of rhetoric that has been hidden for centuries.
References
Classical rhetorical theory in interpersonal communication, psychology, behavioral and social science. (2014). Communication Theory, Web.
Rhetoric in ancient times. (n.d.). Introduction to Communication, 2020. Web.
Women in the history of rhetoric. (n.d.). American Society for the History of Rhetoric, 2020, Web.
Herrick, R. (1907). Composition and rhetoric. Chicago: Scott, Foresman.