Introduction
The life of human beings on this Earth has always been a very complicated matter. This has been so due to some factors – natural, physical, psychological, and others. From the initial stages of its existence, mankind tried to structure relations between human beings and between their small and large groups. Some scientists believe that mankind was formed only after the first pre-historic society appeared.
They say that before living in a state from people lived in a wild form of existence which was the reason why the construction of society was necessary. People wanted to have some security, some guarantee that their property will remain theirs tomorrow and no one will come and take it, as well as their lives, away. Either according to this theory, the theory of a social agreement, or according to Darwin’s evolutionary theory, the formation of the society was an inevitable stage of human development (Baird, 2001).
Thesis
As soon as the society was established, at first in its simple forms, then in more complicated ones, people felt the desire to study the phenomena and the processes that take place in the society they live in. Firstly, philosophy dealt with it but in the middle of the 19th century, social science was established as the separate branch of science that deals exclusively with social events and processes (Bozon, 1996). One of the processes it deals with is the interrelation between society and sexuality during the development of mankind. This topic has several main points and we are going to consider them in this essay.
They are gender issues, i. e. the problem of equal rights for men and women, the role of women in social and cultural life and the struggle for the shift of this role, feminism, as well as the rights of people with different sexual orientations, i. e. gays, and lesbians. The major claims of social science in the past, and they remain one of the basic ones in it, were that ideas that society is a place where all people of different races, sexes, religions, and preferences can live with equal rights, obligations. and possibilities. Thus, the main controversies of the interrelations between the concepts of sexuality and social science are derived from its main claims.
In reality, there was no equality in the past until people who were discriminated against started fighting for their rights. In modern society, social science also deals with the problems of social discrimination based on different biological and social factors. So, this is the main issue in respect of the correlation between social science and the concept of sexuality.
Women in Early Societies
Social science tries to trace the development of the phenomena of sexuality in the history of human society. It studies all stages of the development of society and it is now evident that human society is moving towards the equality of rights of both sexes. But it has not always been so and history presents a great area for work in this direction. At the beginning of the social life of human beings, the rights of women were considerably higher than the rights of men.
In numerous pre-historic societies there very often were cases when women were heads of certain social groups, clans, and tribes. This phenomenon was called to be a matriarchy, and although the cases are very rare nowadays, it still exists in some countries or tribes whose development remains at the level of the pre-historic people. In times of matriarchy, women ruled the society, participated in wars. and decided political affairs which then started being considered as the man’s work (Braizer, 2001).
There was no need for the struggle for equal rights because they were equal and men did not protest against the then state of things. The cult of a woman was very strong as the humans of early societies understood that life is given by a woman and this is the basic reason why women can be superior to the opposite sex (Voss, 2007).
Middle Ages and Religion
But with time the situation started changing and males acquired more and more power in society. This shift began in the period of the Middle Ages when religion acquired great power over people’s minds and lives. If in the pre-historic period the spiritual basis of human existence consisted in different myths they created and believed in, then in the epoch of Christianity beliefs changed to a single religion that became dominant.
In the pre-historic myths, the role of women was great. They were Goddesses, powers of nature, even the Earth itself was thought of as a female being because it gave birth to everything in the world. Religion, on the contrary, limited the role of a woman to a housewife that had no right to participate in the social, political, or cultural life of the society. Thus, beginning from that time, the role of a woman was so limited that men were considered to be the only rightful members of the society while women were thought of as their parts that have no rights for independent existence. Christianity, of course, did not deny that women give birth to all people and made it the basis for its ideology, but then women were put into such limits that can not be called humane. According to the religious beliefs, the main ideas of a woman were obedience, submissiveness, humility, and other phenomena of the same kind.
This meant that women should not participate in men’s activities which do not always presuppose the above-mentioned values. In Islamic countries, the state of things became even worse as women were not even allowed to show their faces in the presence of men other than their husbands. Despite this fact, in many cultures and religions women play very significantly, sometimes even fundamental roles, for example, the Blessed Virgin Mary in Christianity or the cult of a woman as a keeper of the house and the family in Hinduism.
In India, it is common to display respect to women according to religious tradition, but in real life women seldom see their husbands before their weddings. They can not make decisions and any manifestation of disobedience to parents or husband is unimaginable there. The picture was the same in the Moslem countries, as well as in Christian societies, but recently the situation has changed for the better (Weston, 1998).
Feminism
But have you ever asked yourself a question as to why the situation changes? To my mind, the answer is simple – women started struggling for their rights and, in addition, a lot of men have understood that women must have equal rights with them. The struggle for the equality of rights for women in comparison to men was called the feminist movement, although the name came much later than the essence of the movement was developed.
Already in times of Reformation in the 16th century, women claimed the equality of rights because they saw that the power of religion was weakening. The voices became louder during the 17 – 18th centuries when several significant events took place, the main important among them being The Great French Revolution that proclaimed equality and freedom for everybody. Nevertheless, the basis of the feminist movement was established in the 19th century in the USA and the United Kingdom of Northern Ireland and Great Britain. The catalyst for feminism was the movement for the right for women to vote at elections in Great Britain.
Then the idea of equal rights in all spheres of social life appeared and was developed by the three waves of feminism. But some other scholars tend to claim that another reason for feminism was the industrial revolution in the world. As far as the development of technology presented more working places and more opportunities for men, they were taken away from the houses to earn money and feed families. Meanwhile, women were to face great amounts of housework and were bound to it for their whole lives. It is no wonder, that such a state of things did not satisfy women and they started to form movements that later became known as feminism (Weston, 1998).
Aspects of Sexuality
In different countries the situation was also different, that is why feminism can not be treated too generic. Women in some areas demanded equal rights for men and women in the society, while others, who were radically oriented, struggled for the return of matriarchy and for the destruction of the society that, as they thought, was created by males and for males only. In these types of feminist movements, liberal and radical feminism, we can observe the picture of the relations between males and females in different cultures and see how they changed through time. In other words, we can trace how the concept of sexuality developed in societies that had different cultures and values.
For example, in the Western countries, like members of the European Union, or the United States of America, sexuality is not a very burning topic because these regions have already overcome this issue due to the democratization of their societies (Muszynski, 2000). In these countries women are recognized as rightful members of the society, they can vote at elections and be elected to the legislative or executive bodies of their countries. In some countries, women even reach the position of President. Examples of this are Germany, Great Britain, and some other countries. In Asian countries, this process is also successful, although not to such an extent as in Europe and the USA.
Asian countries not only allow women to vote but also can be ruled by women, for example, Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan or Gandhi in India. Countries of Latin America are still under the great influence of the concept of “machismo”, i. e. male superiority that can not be doubted. This concept also used to limit freedoms of women in Mexico, Argentina, Chile, and other countries but recently even there the progress has been noticed, as women can vote and be elected, can participate in social and cultural life without coming into conflict with the ideals of their society (Mauro, 2004).
Social Science and Motherhood
One more important point that shows the connection between social science and sexuality is the relations between women and society, and namely between the women who have children and the rest of the society. This point is so significant because the status of women with children was undeservedly low in the past. That is why social science, and its prominent representatives like Adrienne Rich, have tried to find out the reasons for such a state of things.
The breaking point of this very problem is the distortion of the importance of such a social institution as motherhood. Scholars in social science noticed this process long ago and defined its main features saying the following. Throughout the history of mankind, people did not doubt the fact that all human life was born by women and there will be no human life without women. But at the same time, society tried to lower the role of women a much as possible by different religious, cultural, and even political means. By this, the role of a woman who gives birth to life was reduced to being a housekeeper.
Thus, the institution of motherhood, instead of being a pride for every woman, became a phenomenon that limited women’s possibilities in human society. Women with children had to stay at home and take care of their babies. They did not have any chance to work or to be involved in any kind of social work or political activities. Even in recent years, the institution of motherhood has been more like a disadvantage for a woman who tries to find a job, than a thing that will make her proud. According to the laws, the employers that hire women who have children have to provide those women with certain benefits, parental leaves, and special care for their children.
As far as this involves quite high levels of expenses, the employers prefer not to have in their staff women with children or pregnant women. Furthermore, if a woman working in a company becomes pregnant, the employers prefer to fire her and hire another worker instead than pay for all the expenses that her motherhood could involve.
Or, as Sharon Hays exemplifies it, if a woman has to take care of her child in hospital while there are some assignments that she must fulfill at work, the employers do not understand the priority of a child to the work and either implement certain sanctions and fines against this woman or fire her at all (Hays, 2006). So, these are the main points of connection between social science and sexuality with which feminists and social activists are fighting to bring genuine equality in human society (Weston, 1998).
Homosexuals and Lesbians
Having considered the interrelation between social science and sexuality as the relationships between two sexes, we must not forget about the relations that can occur between the representatives of the same sex, i. e. homosexual relations whether between men or between women. This issue is one of the main concerns of social science nowadays, as far as this kind of relationship occurs more and more often in the modern society which strives for equality of rights, freedoms, and preferences (Baird, 2001). This point was also important in the past as it influenced considerably the social life of these people as well as the people they were surrounded by.
Different social conflicts occurred because the people with different sexual orientations wanted equal rights with those who are heterosexuals, and as a result, certain progress was achieved in this respect (Munk, 1998).
In the past, homosexual relations were prohibited by law in many countries, for example in the USSR or Great Britain. Criminal cases were filed against homosexuals and lesbians, and they had either to go to jail or hide their relations thus creating a layer of the society that was in a hidden conflict with the state power and with the bulk of that very society (Moore, 2001). But recently, there have been certain improvements for homosexual people. In many countries, social movements for the equal rights of homosexuals appeared, and as a result of their activity, they got more freedoms and rights in society. Nowadays, homosexual marriages are allowed legally in many countries. Besides, a homosexual can not only participate in social life but also become a politician and influence all aspects of the life of society.
Conclusion
To conclude, the aim of it was to study the relation of social science and sexuality in all its aspect and to find out the reasons for this or that kind of events that take place in the society concerning the phenomenon of sexuality. We managed to achieve the set goals in this research essay and see how sexuality developed together with the development of human society on the whole. We considered the historic stages of social development and sexuality and the issues connected with it. We can see now, that the situation with the quality of rights for both sexes, as well as for those with different sexual orientations changed drastically over the past few years.
Social science deals with the issues of society and sexuality as one of its aspects. Social science is a great science that studies the most important for humans – the development of the largest social institution, society, in all aspects and tries to explain some current or past events to predict the development of the society in the future.
Works Cited
Baird, V. No-Nonsense Guide to Sexual Diversity: Global Overview. Internationalist Publications, 2001, pp. 10 – 19.
Baird, V. No-Nonsense Guide to Sexual Diversity: Science. Explaining Sexual Orientation. Internationalist Publications, 2001, pp. 101 – 111.
Bozon, M. Sexuality and the Social Sciences: A French Survey on Sexual Behaviour. Dartmouth Publishing Group, 1996.
Braizer, C. No-Nonsense Guide to Sexual Diversity: The Great Goddess. Internationalist Publications, 2001, pp. 18 – 19.
Hays, S. Why Can’t a Mother Be More Like a Businessman? Maternal Theory: Essential Readings, 2006, pp, 408 – 429.
Mauro, D. Social Science Research Council: “Handbook of Sexuality Research Training Initiatives”. Social Science Research Council, 2004.
Moore, M. Stupid White Men – And Other Sorry Excuses for the State of Nation: The End of Men. Harper Collins, 2001, pp. 142 – 161.
Munk, V. Romantic Love and Sexual Behavior: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. Praeger Publishers, 1998.
Muszynski, A. Social Issues and Contradictions in Canadian Society, B. Singh Bolaria: Social Construction/Deconstruction of Sex, Gender, Race and Class. Harcourt Canada, 2000, pp. 95 – 125.
Voss, B. Archaeologies of Sexuality. Taylor & Francis; 1 edition, 2007.
Weston, K. Long Slow Burn: Sexuality and Social Science. Routledge; 1 edition, 1998.
Biological Bases Of Autism: General Analysis
Introduction
Autism is a wide range of conditions that are marked by difficulties in social abilities, cyclic behavior, dialogue, and non-verbal communication. This disorder is sometimes referred to as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) due to the existence of many subtypes. Consequently, each person with autism has a unique group of strengths and difficulties. Aspects such as learning, thought process, and problem-solving can vary from highly skilled to severely compromised in affected individuals. Therefore, certain people with this condition may require assistance to carry out their day-to-day activities, whereas others may function autonomously.
The symptoms of autism are usually apparent by the time a child reaches 2 years. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] reports that the incidence of autism in the US is 1 in 59 children and that boys are more likely to have it than girls (2018).
The exact cause of autism is unknown. However, recent investigations suggest that a genetic component is involved in autism due to observed genetic differences between healthy people and those with ASD (Bourgeron, 2016). Nevertheless, more than 100 genetic loci have been shown to play a role in the development of autism. Other studies suggest a complex interaction between genetics and the environment.
For example, the National Institute of Environmental Health Science [NIEHS] reports that conceiving later in life, prenatal exposure to toxic chemicals (pesticides), premature births, childbirth complications that lead to oxygen deficiency in the baby’s brain may cause autism (2019). Mothers with ailments such as diabetes, obesity, and immunological complications have also been reported to have children with autism (Cheng, Eskenazi, Widjaja, Cordero, & Hendren, 2019).
Investigations on ASD show that its symptoms are usually accompanied by sensory sensitivities, which indicate the involvement of the brain in the disease. Certain medical problems such as gastrointestinal disturbances, sleep problems, mental health complications, and seizures may be present. Depression, anxiety, and poor attention are some of the most common mental health issues that are observed. The purpose of this paper is to explain the biological bases of the disease while considering the specific areas of the brain that are affected together with their associated symptoms. The terms autism and ASD are used interchangeably in the paper.
Brain Areas Implicated When Identifying the Symptoms of Autism
Studies to elucidate the neurobiology of autism have used mouse models to identify specific regions of the brain that are affected. They include the frontal lobe, parieto-temporal lobe, hypothalamus, cerebellar cortex, and the striatum (Ellegood et al., 2015). Sub-regional investigations revealed further changes in the deep cerebellar nuclei, hippocampal CA1, and dorsal raphe nuclei. Subsequent studies involving human subjects have confirmed these findings. Preliminary investigations focused first on understanding developmental anomalies of the brain in normal and ASD subjects.
Ecker, Bookheimer, and Murphy (2015) noted that children with autism have a larger brain than normal ones between the ages of 2 and 4 years. The brain volume then shrinks at 6 to 8 years. During this time, the growth curves of normal and diseased children intersect. After this point, there are no further changes. These observations suggest an aberrant brain development trajectory in children with autism. Furthermore, the modified neurodevelopmental course differs in various parts of the brain with the frontal and temporal lobes being disturbed more than the parietal and occipital lobes. This observation implies that autism disturbs the time-based and local order of conventional early brain development.
Nonetheless, other studies have observed general expansions all through the cerebral cortices of children with autism between 18 and 35 months (Hazlett et al., 2017). These enlargements not only alter the configuration of separate areas of the brain but also contribute to discrepancies in brain morphology and interconnections between systems. The constituents of neural systems that cause autism include the amygdala-hippocampal complex, frontotemporal and frontoparietal regions, basal ganglia, cerebellum, as well as anterior and posterior cingulate areas. These central regions are thought to result in precise clinical symptoms. The amygdala is substantially bigger in children with autism than in normally developing children.
Conversely, the total brain volume follows an age-related reduction after early puberty. The cortical thickness and surface area also obey a similar pattern. Several cross-sectional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies involving people between the ages of 3 and 19 have confirmed the characteristic cortical thinning in different areas of the brain. These observations underscore the importance of considering the different neurodevelopmental phases when contrasting normal individuals with those with ASD given that the rate of cortical development does not follow a linear pattern in humans (Khundrakpam, Lewis, Kostopoulos, Carbonell, & Evans, 2017).
One consequence of cortex expansion is folding to accommodate the enlarging surface of the brain in the limited cavity of the skull. Therefore, the brain exhibits increased cortical folding in ASD, which results in other events such as exertion of a pulling force on the superimposing neocortex by the fibers of the white matter, thereby regulating cortical folding externally through mechanical tension (Yang, Beam, Pelphrey, Abdullahi, & Jou, 2016).
Another way through which cortical folding can be controlled is through developmental alterations in the inner part of the cortical sheet, particularly in the cortical grey matter. For example, the development of cortical gyri is associated with a hastened enlargement of the exterior cortical layers compared to the inner ones in addition to the microstructural intricacy of related grey matter that is brought about by processes such as synaptogenesis, dendritic arborization, and the placement of neurons in space.
Several MRI investigations have revealed uncharacteristic cortical gyrification in the brains of people with autism. For instance, people with autism have more cortical deformities than healthy subjects, including large gyri (microgyria), many small folds (polymicrogyria), and crevices covering the cortical grey matter (schizencephaly). It has also been shown that sulci develop further along the key axes of the brain in children with autism than normal ones. Additionally, the frontal lobes of children and teenagers with ASD have a marked increase in gyrification.
Functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI) investigations focusing on neural networks in autism have enhanced the categorization of autism as a dispersed neural system condition. Brain anomalies in ASD can be classified as cortical underconnectivity or local overconnectivity. However, mixed outcomes are sometimes observed in affected patients, thereby indicating that interrupted brain connectivity is a neural indicator of autism (Maximo, Cadena, & Kana, 2014).
The first scientific account of autism showed that affected individuals exhibited behaviors that resembled those of people with frontal lobe damage (Fellowes, 2015). The dentato-thalamo-cortical path, which is central to speech and advanced cognitive functions, was also compromised in autism. Later studies utilizing positron emission tomography (PET), indicated that adults with autism had an overall upsurge in resting glucose metabolism, which backed the supposition that autism was connected to aberrant brain activity. These preliminary studies formed the basis that changes in brain responses were important in the pathobiology of autism.
The introduction of contemporary neuroimaging techniques such as magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) further improved the quality of outcomes of studies looking into the brain in autism. More studies into the area were prompted by the increasing diagnoses of autism in children (Cheng, Rolls, Gu, Zhang, & Feng, 2015).
Overall, cognitive progressions are computationally taxing and need efficient allotment of the brain’s resources to produce optimal functioning of various areas of the brain. Two principles guide the organization of the brain: functional specialization and functional integration (Ma et al., 2018). The tenet of functional specialization suggests that various sections of the brain are dedicated to diverse cognitive functions, whereas functional integration entails the synchronization of different areas of the brain to complete a chore. Integration means that a given cortical region is specific for certain facets of perceptual or motor handling.
This adaptation is anatomically separated in the cortex. Consequently, early brain development entails striking a subtle balance between the functional adaptation of precise regions and the establishment of networks across these areas via integration. Since autism is characterized by changes in brain developmental course, it interferes with functional specialization and integration. Current neurobiological discoveries of behavioral working in autism indicate that changes in brain connectivity are the main hallmarks of its pathophysiology.
Underconnectivity
Cheng et al. (2015) observed diminished functional connectivity across various parts of the brain in adults with ASD. Enervated functional connectivity, which is also known as cortical underconnectivity, was observed following several fMRI studies that were done using various cognitive and social tasks. Some of the tasks used included language, visual imagery, problem-solving, working memory, response inhibition, social and emotional chores, general processing, cognitive control, and biological motion. The weaker connectivity reported in most of these studies was primarily between the prefrontal cortex and relatively posterior brain areas.
Reduced synchronization of the prefrontal and posterior areas hampers higher-level processing and could be responsible for problems like impaired social, cognitive, and language processing that is observed in autism. For social processing to occur, there should be harmonized working of the “medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and the temporoparietal junction (TPJ, associated with ToM), the superior temporal sulcus (STS, associated with biological motion), and the fusiform gyrus (FG, associated with face processing)” (Maximo et al., 2014, p. 4).
Underconnectivity has also been shown in areas beyond the frontal-posterior system like in the middle of the amygdala and temporal and frontal areas and amid the anterior cingulate and frontal eye turfs. Other areas with underconnectivity are between insula and areas of the brain that play a role in the processing of emotional and sensory signals, inside motor networks, anterior cerebellum, and the thalamus. Moreover, areas flanking the prefrontal cortex and premotor and somatosensory cortices, as well as between the amygdala and fusiform gyrus, the cuneus and posterior cingulate may experience underconnectivity.
Systems involving cortical and subcortical areas such as those between the thalamus and cerebellum and the visual cortex, in addition to areas in the middle of the caudate nucleus and superior frontal gyrus have also been documented to have functional underconnectivity in autism. Even though all these investigations observed functional underconnectivity in the non-frontal posterior network, different outcomes were noted across various sets of areas in diverse chores. As a result, it is not possible to pinpoint a precise outline of the disorder (Cheng et al., 2015).
Overconnectivity
Overconnectivity in autism has been reported in areas such as the amygdala, the extrastriate cortex, parahippocampal gyri, frontal and temporal areas. In the same way, higher functional connectivity has been observed amidst temporal lobe, posterior cingulate cortex, and parahippocampal gyrus (Solso et al., 2016). The suggestion of overconnectivity in cortical-subcortical systems was ascertained by elevated functional connectivity in temporo-thalamic zones in people with autism. Increased connectivity in thalamocortical protuberances that comprise the cerebello-thalamo-cortical path can be linked to an untimely decrease in the population and compactness of Purkinje cells in autism. Given the inhibitory functions of Purkinje cells, this disorder disturbs the inhibition-excitation equilibrium, thereby causing overconnectivity.
Overall, overconnectivity is not an indication of effective connectivity but is deciphered to indicate hyperspecialized systems. Therefore, ASD may present itself in the form of excessive connectivity between unnecessary regions, which permits low-level cross-talk that raises noise signals in the system. Overconnectivity is also attributed to the previously observed brain overgrowth in the early developmental stages of children with autism. Synaptic trimming is a vital process needed in brain orderliness and specialization of networks in characteristic development. However, when this function is impaired in ASD, it may cause overconnectivity in the brain.
When considering outward cytoarchitecture aberrances, overconnectivity has been characteristically noted in the superior temporal gyrus, inside the frontal lobes, and in the adjacent occipital complex (Conti et al., 2017). A local system with overconnectivity can be likened to a headland detached from other parts of the brain and with restricted entry to the remainder of the brain, which forms long-distance underconnectivity. Thus, the brain makes up for anomalous connectivity by integrating most regions that it can access easily, including surrounding areas.
As a result, ASD can be hypothesized as a disturbance in cortical and subcortical underconnectivity at long distances with compensatory malformed shorter circuit overconnectivity. These factors cause the prevalent heightened perception of modest stimuli among people with autism with contemporaneous damage in the successful sensory incorporation of the stimuli into a multiplex gestalt perceptual depiction (Sharma, Gonda, & Tarazi, 2018). It is worth noting that mixed patterns of connectivity have also been reported in addition to under and overconnectivity.
The Function of Brain Areas in Social Interaction
Difficulties in social interactions, which is one of the three distinguishing symptoms of ASD is attributed to underconnectivity in brain areas that mediate language, social cognition, and executive functions. It has been shown that poor connectivity in the area flanking the posterior cingulate cortex and the superior frontal gyrus was responsible for impaired social interaction. These findings were obtained through correlation studies and have contributed to elucidating brain-behavior associations in ASD.
Core Deficits of Autism and Associated Brain Regions
Communication
Cortical underconnectivity impedes the optimization of network links needed to execute tasks such as enhancing communication between task-pertinent areas of the brain. Poor coordination among key areas of a network implies that the ensuing output would be substandard. Poor coherence may be attributed to numerous factors, including impaired brain regions, application of a different cortical pathway, or structural irregularities in specific areas.
Mild morphological incongruities like the abnormal growth of white matter may occur in the early stages of life, uncharacteristic maturation of white matter in newborns and toddlers, changes in its volume and intactness in children have been documented in ASD. Such axonal aberrations can constrict the conveyance of information across various parts of the brain because cognitive operation entails the simultaneous instigation of a network of cortical regions with harmonized activity. This coordination is founded on communication between regions with the aid of pieces of white matter that give the structural connectivity (Cheng et al., 2015).
For example, it has been noted that teenagers with autism who exhibited elevated functional connectivity in the default mode network had diminished abilities in verbal and non-verbal communication. The default mode network consists of the retrosplenial cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, superior frontal gyrus, lateral parietal cortex/angular gyrus, medial prefrontal cortex, and parahippocampal gyrus. Additionally, Ecker et al. (2015) observed that oddities in Broca’s and Wernicke’s area were linked to linguistic and social communication insufficiencies.
Social Behavior
Cheng et al. (2015) evaluated the resting state functional connectivity in 418 individuals with ASD and 509 healthy subjects. They noted that decreased cortical functional connectivity in the mid temporal gyrus and superior temporal sulcus areas. The connectivity increased around the medial thalamus. These areas are thought to be involved in the processing of facial expressions, which are important in social behavior. A decreased functional connectivity of this area with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex affects the emotional aspects of social communication. Ecker et al. (2015) also noted that the amygdala and the frontotemporal areas were associated with defects in socio-emotional processing.
Associated Repetitive Behaviors
Relentlessly repetitive behaviors in ASD are associated with elevated functional connectivity between the parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Conversely, overconnectivity in the frontal eye areas and anterior cingulate has a positive correlation with limiting, repetitive activities. The increased connectivity between PHG and PCC can occur as causes or upshots of repetitive and restricting activities in autism. The frontostriatal system, which comprises the orbitofrontal cortex and the caudate nucleus might also facilitate recurrent and typecast behaviors (Ecker et al., 2015). Moreover, neuroimaging substantiation implies that the caudate nucleus is distended in autism. This distension is linked to the gravity of cyclic and stereotyped activities.
Biological Implication of Anxiety
Children with general anxiety disorders often have increased total amygdala volume. Thus, aberrant amygdala anatomy in ASD may be associated with indications of anxiety (Herrington et al., 2017). The role of the amygdala in the sensing, deciphering, and recovery of emotional information has led to its wide implication in autism. However, studies on disparities in amygdala volume in autism have yielded mixed outcomes. Nonetheless, the most convincing evidence regarding the morphology of the amygdala shows that its volume changes according to a developmental course where it increases tremendously in the early stages of growth followed by a rapid deceleration by puberty.
Emotions epitomize changes in psychological and bodily states and are linked to sharp motivational reorganization. A milieu of cortical and subcortical constructions support emotions in the human brain, for example, the anterior cingulate, ventral prefrontal, amygdala, dorsal brainstem, insular cortices, and ventral striatum. Activity in most of these areas corresponds to alterations in physiology such as temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate.
Emotional encounter is regulated by the capacity to sense and detect oscillations in the inner physiological state and the performance of instinctual organs in a process referred to as interoception (Garfinkel et al., 2016). In the same way, people with higher interoceptive precision on heartbeat recognition chores have intense emotional experiences. Besides, personal divergences in interoception have an effect on susceptibility to physical and psychological indications.
These findings corroborate the supposition that identifying physical sensations can influence emotional and affective encounters. The emotion processing challenges noted in autism are related hypothetically to compromised ability to recognize and differentiate emotions in self and others. Grownups with autism present with distinct patterns of neural connectivity and brain activity while dealing with emotional information. These patterns differ from the norm and are evident even if their behavioral insufficiencies are not significant. Additionally, these observations correspond to poor activation or connectivity of the insula, which charts physiological and psychological processes in a manner reachable to consciousness. Therefore, the insula is deemed crucial to the depiction of physiological signals in a way that directs emotional outlooks and actions.
Garfinkel et al. (2016) ascertained that people with autism have decreased interoceptive exactitude and inflated interoceptive sensibility, which reflects poor ability to perceive physical signals accurately together with an increased skewed discernment of bodily sensations. The discrepancy between these two interoceptive alignments is usually calculated as a trait prediction error, which corresponds to insufficiencies in emotional sensitivity and incidence of anxiety signs.
These outcomes have therapeutic implications because they point towards a possible route that can be used to assuage distressing symptoms in autism by exercising enhanced interoceptive precision and better prognostic regulation of inner physical signals. Additional methods that are linked to improved body awareness such as meditation are reported to exhibit anxiolytic upshots. Therefore, the findings reported by Garfinkel et al. (2016) propose that interoceptive training can be a valuable way of managing anxiety and subjective distress in ASD.
Biological Implication of OCD
The connection between autism and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is based on spotted resemblances in repetitive behaviors that express in both diseases. Repetitive behaviors are part of a wide group of behaviors that have substantial similarities to other ailments that contribute to the high rates of comorbidity in people with autism. Consequently, studies have been conducted to uncover the type of relationship between ASD and related disorders. Ruzzano, Borsboom, and Geurts (2015) tested the interactions between the repetitive activities specific to autism and OCD by using the network approach to psychopathologies that theorizes ailments as simple tags for networks of symptoms that are connected by similar causes.
The authors noted that autism and OCD were two separate clusters of symptoms. Obsessions and compulsions shared a few direct links with the symptoms of ASD. Using the Perceived Causal Clinician Network, it was evident that obsession nodes were directly related to autism nodes for compulsions or rites (Ruzzano et al., 2015). This observation meant that obsessions do not cause or influence any autism nodes. There was a modest to weak link between compulsion and autism indications.
These findings supported the previous assumption that repetitive behaviors were the major linkage between autism and OCD. Nevertheless, these syndromes constantly appeared as distinct groups of symptoms because of robust and more common connection of symptoms within a disease, which meant that distinct interactions among symptoms and processes differentiate the two disorders.
These results inform the conceptualization of autism in relation to OCD, which is usually based on the assumption that they are unique but highly comorbid disorders. Another supposition is the symptoms of the two disorders merely overlap. Ruzzano et al. (2015) indicate that ritualistic and compulsive actions contribute to the autism spectrum and are the main link between the two disorders. Furthermore, these symptoms have a high likelihood of influencing other repetitive mannerisms as well as determining what signs manifest and the extent to which they appear.
The observed similarities between autism and ASD imply that the two diseases share inadequacies in inhibitory control of repetitive and compulsive behaviors. However, it is uncertain whether similar or different neural profiles mediated these symptoms. Carlisi et al. (2017) evaluated the common and disease-specific anatomy and function of neurons that mediate inhibitory functions in the two diseases.
There was decreased function and structure in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. OCD had a unique increase in the structure and function of left basal ganglia or insula compared to autism and controls. Conversely, fMRI findings showed that autism patients had a distinct low activation of the left dorsolateral-prefrontal area. Furthermore, individuals with OCD devoid of comorbid ASD have been shown to have enlarged basal ganglia (Guersel, Avram, Sorg, Brandl, & Koch, 2018). These outcomes show that the two diseases have unique and shared abnormalities.
Pharmacological Interventions in Autism
Individuals with autism usually receive treatment to manage emotional and behavioral problems linked to the core symptoms of the disorder. Two categories of treatment are possible: pharmacological and nonpharmacological. Psychotropic drugs are commonly used to assuage emotional and behavioral indications. Different classes of drugs have been used to treat ASD based on the presenting symptoms. This section will discuss the major classes of drugs and together with the commonly prescribed drugs in each category for the treatment of autism in pediatric and adult patients. Findings regarding their efficacy, safety, and tolerability as ascertained by different trials are also highlighted.
Psychostimulants
Psychostimulants are an important class of drugs in ASD due to a high level of comorbidity between autism and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Therefore, conventional ADHD psychostimulants such as amphetamines and methylphenidate help control ADHD indications in ASD patients. Earlier randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrated the efficacy of methylphenidate in managing hyperactivity in pediatric patients with autism.
However, later studies revealed a rise in adverse effects such as irritability and social withdrawal. A different trial by the Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology (RUPP) Autism Network showed that this drug assuaged hyperactivity and impulsivity in half of ASD patients aged between 5 and 14 years who displayed hyperactivity. Nevertheless, the efficacy of methylphenidate was lower than the observed 70 to 80% efficacy rates in children with ADHD only. This difference could be explained by lower doses of the drug used in ASD patients because they cannot withstand higher doses typically administered in ADHD (Sharma et al., 2018).
Similar findings were recorded in preschool-aged children when methylphenidate was administered at a maximum dose of 10 mg twice a day. Increasing the dosage beyond this point was linked with more side effects, for example, stereotypic behaviors, irritability, gastrointestinal disturbances, and sleep complications. It is worth noting that psychostimulants are only beneficial in ASD if the patient presents comorbid hyperactivity and impulsivity. However, they do not confer any benefits on other indications such as social withdrawal, speech distortion, irritability, and repetitive behaviors.
Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs
This group of antipsychotic drugs affects receptors specific for dopamine, serotonin, and other related neurotransmitters. They have been used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. The commonly prescribed atypical antipsychotic drugs for autism include quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone, aripiprazole, and olanzapine.
Risperidone
At an average dose of 2.9 mg per day for 12 weeks, risperidone has been reported to minimize symptoms such as depression, aggression, repetitive behavior, and anxiety in adult patients with ASD (Accordino, Kidd, Politte, Henry, & McDougle, 2016). Tolerability to the drug was satisfactory without indications of seizures, cardiac events, or extrapyramidal outcomes. Administering the drug to children and teenagers at a mean dose of 1.8 mg/kg for 8 weeks led to a 57% decline in irritability compared to 14% in the placebo group. Other symptoms that were improved by risperidone included repetitive behaviors, social withdrawal, aggression, and hyperactivity. A separate trial showed that the drug could lessen hyperactivity, irritability and social withdrawal at an average dose of 1.2 mg per day.
However, notable side effects linked to the drug included fatigue, substantial weight gain, dizziness, and sleepiness. Nonetheless, the benefits of the drug outweighed its risks, which led to the FDA approval of risperidone as an atypical antipsychotic agent for autism. Further proof shows that at doses ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 mg per day, risperidone can decrease irritability and aggression in children with ASD between the ages of 2 and 9 years.
Aripiprazole
The administration of 3 doses of aripiprazole (5, 10, and 15 mg per day for 8 weeks) to children and teenagers with autism between the ages of 6 and 17 led to a substantial reduction in irritability (Sharma et al., 2018). The most commonly observed side effects included drooling, sedation, and tremor, which increased the discontinuation rate of the drug. In a separate study, ASD patients of the same age who exhibited aggression received aripiprazole at a mean dose of 8.6 mg per day or placebo. Aripiprazole could reduce irritability within a week of use and sustained its effects all through the duration of the trial. The drug is approved as the second atypical antipsychotic agent in the management of irritability in children and teenagers with autism (Accordino et al., 2016).
Quetiapine
This drug has not produced conclusive outcomes in different trials. Two trials involving a few participants showed that its response rates were low (25%), whereas associated side effects were high. Some of the observed adverse effects included weight gain, aggressive behavior, and sedation (Cosme & Dharmapuri, 2017). Conversely, other studies observed higher response rates ranging from 40 to 60% with extensive side effects (Sharma et al., 2018). These outcomes show that risperidone is more effective than quetiapine in ASD. However, further studies are needed to establish the tolerability, safety, and efficacy of the drug more accurately.
Ziprasidone
Ziprasidone has led to substantial improvements in ASD symptoms such as agitation, aggressiveness, and irritability at an average dose of 59 mg per day (Sharma et al., 2018). Most patients tolerated the drug well. Notable changes included mean weight losses of 5.8 pounds, which were to be expected following a switch from atypical agents associated with weight gain. The weight loss effect of ziprasidone was ascertained by changing adult patients to ziprasidone from other drugs that lead to significant weight gain. Significant weight loss was observed in all patients after 6 months on ziprasidone at a mean dose of 128 mg per day without worsening their managed behavioral symptoms. However, there is a need for further studies to authenticate the therapeutic advantages of ziprasidone in autism.
Olanzapine
Olanzapine has been shown to improve symptoms such as anger, irritability, anxiety, social withdrawal, hyperactivity, and language at a mean dose of 7.8 mg per day in ASD patients aged between 5 and 42 years. The most common adverse effect was a significant increase in body weight over a treatment period of 12 weeks. An average body weight increase of 8.4 kg was recorded (Sharma et al., 2018). When the efficiency of olanzapine was compared to haloperidol in children with ASD, the former produced a higher response rate. However, children treated with olanzapine had a substantial weight gain of 4.1 kg. Even though olanzapine produces satisfactory response rates in the management of autism symptoms, its clinical use is restricted because of associated metabolic effects, including elevated appetite, weight gain and hampered sensitivity to insulin (Yoon, Wink, Pedapati, Horn, & Erickson, 2016).
Antidepressant Drugs
Antidepressant medications, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are commonly administered to patients with autism. Their use over the recent years has increased despite inconclusive evidence to back their use in alleviating the key ASD symptoms, anxiety, or depression. Some of the widely used SSRIs include sertraline, fluoxetine, escitalopram, citalopram, and fluvoxamine.
Fluoxetine
Treatment with liquid fluoxetine for 20 weeks has been shown to minimize repetitive behaviors in children with autism compared to the administration of placebo (Sharma et al., 2018). There were no significant safety and tolerability concerns, even though the drug did not yield any improvements on other ASD symptoms. A separate RCT recorded uneven restitution of anxiety signs and repetitive activities in a small group of adult patients with comorbid ASD and anxiety over a treatment period of 16 weeks. The Study of Fluoxetine in Autism (SOFIA) RCT did not identify any substantial improvements in repetitive behavior in patients treated with fluoxetine compared to placebo (Herscu et al., 2019). These studies show that there is inadequate evidence to support or oppose the use of fluoxetine in the treatment of ASD symptoms.
Sertraline
The treatment of ASD patients with sertraline for 2 to 8 weeks at a dose ranging from 25 to 50 mg led to a substantial improvement in irritability and anxiety symptoms in 88.8% of the treated patients. A larger trial involving higher doses of the drug (50 to 200 mg) led to a reduction in aggression and repetitive behaviors in adults with ASD. Very few adverse effects were reported, thereby indicating that the drug was well tolerated (Sharma et al., 2018). Further studies are necessary to ascertain additional benefits of sertraline in autism.
Citalopram
Citalopram is reported to alleviate anxiety and belligerence in a few young patients with ASD. However, it did not alter the core signs of the disease. A retrospective review of medical charts belonging to patients with ASD showed that citalopram decreased anxiety, irritability, and repetitive behaviors even though it produced mild side effects. However, a later trial done by the Studies to Advance Autism Research and Treatment (STAART) Autism Network failed to verify these outcomes after noting many side effects without significant therapeutic benefits (Sharma et al., 2018). Some of the observed side effects included insomnia, hyperactivity, and diarrhea. Finally, it was concluded that citalopram is not effective in autism.
Escitalopram
Few studies have evaluated the efficacy of escitalopram in ASD. The drug is reported to improve impulsivity and general psychosocial working in young patients with autism compared to placebo. Nonetheless, many patients reported adverse effects such as aggression, hyperactivity, or irritability, which led to the untimely discontinuation of the drug. There is a need for more trials to assess the safety and efficacy of escitalopram in adult patients with ASD in the presence or absence of comorbid depression or anxiety (Sharma et al., 2018).
Fluvoxamine
There are no conclusive clinical data on the use of fluvoxamine in ASD. One study found out that only 17% of patients with coexisting compulsive and anxiety symptoms reported improvements in their symptoms following 10 weeks of treatment. The administered dosage of fluvoxamine was 1.5 mg/kg per day. Adverse drug effects such as agitation, trouble sleeping, akathisia, appetite alterations, and headaches were noted in those patients. Conversely, a separate 12-week RCT reported that fluvoxamine could lessen symptoms of ASD, such as aggression and repetitive behaviors in adult patients with ASD compared to placebo (Sharma et al., 2018).
Alpha-2 Adrenergic Receptor Agonists
Prominent symptoms in ASD such as sleep disorders, aggressive tendencies, and anxiety have been treated successfully using alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists. These drugs block the neurotransmission of norepinephrine in the brainstem, which reduces sympathetic discharge and peripheral opposition (Santosh & Singh, 2016). As a result, motor spasms, hyperarousal, and anxiety are alleviated. Administering clonidine, an example of an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonist, for 4 weeks has been shown to reduce states of hyperarousal and enhanced social interactions in young patients with autism.
A separate study reported moderate improvements following the administration of clonidine to children with ASD. A retrospective clinical trial revealed that symptoms such as sleep instigation latency and night awakening were improved by giving clonidine to ASD patients (Sharma et al., 2018). The drug also helped with hyperactivity and aggressiveness in patients with a low tolerability profile. However, more RCTs are needed to provide additional insight into the clinical efficiency and safety of clonidine in autism.
Another example of an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonist that has been investigated in ASD is guanfacine extended-release. Children who received prescriptions of the drug to be taken for 8 weeks had improved impulsiveness, hyperactivity, and distractibility compared to those who got placebos. Significant side effects associated with the drug included sleepiness, tiredness, and diminished appetite. These observations were corroborated by a different trial, which indicated that clinicians should be cautious when prescribing guanfacine to ASD patients.
Conclusion
Heterogeneity in the presentation of autism is a common challenge to researchers trying to provide scientific explanations of the disorder as well as clinicians targeting the design of apposite interventions for affected patients. These differences also convolute studies meant to understand the neurobiological basis of autism. From this paper, the observed neurobiological heterogeneity of ASD confirms that it is not a single disorder but a blend of many abnormalities due to its myriad manifestations and varying etiologies. Concerning the brain anatomy implicated in ASD, various studies show that frontal lobe aberrances are common in ASD and responsible for the observed impairments.
However, these abnormalities are also present in other mental and neurodevelopmental diseases such as OCD, schizophrenia, and anxiety disorders. These observations propose that phenotypic resemblances in brain structure between autism and other psychiatric disorders are responsible for their corresponding clinical phenotypes and comorbidities. Conversely, the pharmacological treatment of ASD entails the use of different classes of drugs to treat varying groups of presenting symptoms.
References
Accordino, R. E., Kidd, C., Politte, L. C., Henry, C. A., & McDougle, C. J. (2016). Psychopharmacological interventions in autism spectrum disorder. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 17(7), 937-952.
Bourgeron, T. (2016). Current knowledge on the genetics of autism and propositions for future research. Comptes Rendus Biologies, 339(7-8), 300-307.
Carlisi, C. O., Norman, L. J., Lukito, S. S., Radua, J., Mataix-Cols, D., & Rubia, K. (2017). Comparative multimodal meta-analysis of structural and functional brain abnormalities in autism spectrum disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 82(2), 83-102.
CDC. (2018). Data and statistics on autism spectrum disorder. Web.
Cheng, J., Eskenazi, B., Widjaja, F., Cordero, J. F., & Hendren, R. L. (2019). Improving autism perinatal risk factors: A systematic review. Medical Hypotheses, 127, 26-33.
Cheng, W., Rolls, E. T., Gu, H., Zhang, J., & Feng, J. (2015). Autism: Reduced connectivity between cortical areas involved in face expression, theory of mind, and the sense of self. Brain, 138(5), 1382-1393.
Conti, E., Mitra, J., Calderoni, S., Pannek, K., Shen, K. K., Pagnozzi, A.,… Muratori, F. (2017). Network over‐connectivity differentiates autism spectrum disorder from other developmental disorders in toddlers: A diffusion MRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 38(5), 2333-2344.
Cosme, R., & Dharmapuri, S. (2017). Reconceptualizing agitation in autism as primary affective dysregulation: Case report and literature review of use of quetiapine in a patient with Treacher–Collins syndrome and autism. European Psychiatry, 41, S434.
Ecker, C., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Murphy, D. G. (2015). Neuroimaging in autism spectrum disorder: Brain structure and function across the lifespan. The Lancet Neurology, 14(11), 1121-1134.
Ellegood, J., Anagnostou, E., Babineau, B. A., Crawley, J. N., Lin, L., Genestine, M.,… Geschwind, D. H. (2015). Clustering autism: Using neuroanatomical differences in 26 mouse models to gain insight into the heterogeneity. Molecular Psychiatry, 20(1), 118-125.
Fellowes, S. (2015). Did Kanner actually describe the first account of autism? The mystery of 1938. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 2274-2276.
Garfinkel, S. N., Tiley, C., O’Keeffe, S., Harrison, N. A., Seth, A. K., & Critchley, H. D. (2016). Discrepancies between dimensions of interoception in autism: Implications for emotion and anxiety. Biological Psychology, 114, 117-126.
Guersel, D. A., Avram, M., Sorg, C., Brandl, F., & Koch, K. (2018). Frontoparietal areas link impairments of large-scale intrinsic brain networks with aberrant fronto-striatal interactions in OCD: A meta-analysis of resting-state functional connectivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 87, 151-160.
Hazlett, H. C., Gu, H., Munsell, B. C., Kim, S. H., Styner, M., Wolff, J. J.,… Collins, D. L. (2017). Early brain development in infants at high risk for autism spectrum disorder. Nature, 542(7641), 348.
Herrington, J. D., Maddox, B. B., Kerns, C. M., Rump, K., Worley, J. A., Bush, J. C.,… Miller, J. S. (2017). Amygdala volume differences in autism spectrum disorder are related to anxiety. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(12), 3682-3691.
Herscu, P., Handen, B. L., Arnold, L. E., Snape, M. F., Bregman, J. D., Ginsberg, L.,… Minshew, N. (2019). The SOFIA study: Negative multi-center study of low dose fluoxetine on repetitive behaviors in children and adolescents with autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1-12.
Khundrakpam, B. S., Lewis, J. D., Kostopoulos, P., Carbonell, F., & Evans, A. C. (2017). Cortical thickness abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders through late childhood, adolescence, and adulthood: A large-scale MRI study. Cerebral Cortex, 27(3), 1721-1731.
Ma, Z., Perez, P., Ma, Z., Liu, Y., Hamilton, C., Liang, Z., & Zhang, N. (2018). Functional atlas of the awake rat brain: A neuroimaging study of rat brain specialization and integration. Neuroimage, 170, 95-112.
Maximo, J. O., Cadena, E. J., & Kana, R. K. (2014). The implications of brain connectivity in the neuropsychology of autism. Neuropsychology Review, 24(1), 16-31.
National Institute of Environmental Health Science. NIEHS. (2019). Autism. Web.
Ruzzano, L., Borsboom, D., & Geurts, H. M. (2015). Repetitive behaviors in autism and obsessive–compulsive disorder: New perspectives from a network analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(1), 192-202.
Santosh, P. J., & Singh, J. (2016). Drug treatment of autism spectrum disorder and its comorbidities in children and adolescents. BJPsych Advances, 22(3), 151-161.
Sharma, S. R., Gonda, X., & Tarazi, F. I. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder: Classification, diagnosis and therapy. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 190, 91-104.
Solso, S., Xu, R., Proudfoot, J., Hagler Jr, D. J., Campbell, K., Venkatraman, V.,… Eyler, L. (2016). Diffusion tensor imaging provides evidence of possible axonal overconnectivity in frontal lobes in autism spectrum disorder toddlers. Biological Psychiatry, 79(8), 676-684.
Yang, D. Y. J., Beam, D., Pelphrey, K. A., Abdullahi, S., & Jou, R. J. (2016). Cortical morphological markers in children with autism: A structural magnetic resonance imaging study of thickness, area, volume, and gyrification. Molecular Autism, 7(1), 1-12.
Yoon, Y., Wink, L. K., Pedapati, E. V., Horn, P. S., & Erickson, C. A. (2016). Weight gain effects of second-generation antipsychotic treatment in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 26(9), 822-827.
Social Effects In The West After The Second World War
Introduction
Historic events are quite difficult matter to analyze. Of course, at the first sight, we can observe pure dates and names that seem to present no difficulty but the issue here is hidden much deeper. This is so because events of the history of mankind can not be observed separately, they are interconnected, and was the reason for one event could have been the result of another one. That is why looking at any historic event in a certain country we can not view it separately without paying attention to the situations in other countries at the same time or earlier (Adas, 2006, pp. 34 – 45). If we speak about such a global event as WWII we must undoubtedly keep to this rule. The World War was such an important event in the history of mankind that we can not presume that it concerned certain nations and did not touch the rest of the world. All the countries were involved in that terrible war and its effects could be seen all over the world (Gilbert, 2004, pp. 23 – 32).
Goals
In this very research paper, our goal is to analyze the effects that WWII had on the world countries, especially on the Western countries. To do this we are going to make use of the primary and secondary sources, analyze the data given in them in order to make our own conclusion, and try to understand the reasons for this or the events that happened in those countries after the war was over. As a starting point of the work, we will briefly examine the background of the situation, looking at the events of WWII for us to have data for the following analysis. The next point of the paper will be the very analysis of the state of such things as Welfare State, rights of women, rates of employment in the Western countries, and of the effects, WWII had upon them.
Causes of the WWII
WWII began as the ambition of the German authorities for the New World Order they wanted to establish after gaining absolute power in this country. Nazi leaders considered their nation to be superior over all other nations that had to be either exterminated from the Earth or subjected to serve the Germans as slaves. At the initial stages of this war, Western countries were not worried as they thought that democratic principles were not under the threat. Nazis started it as a campaign against communism and Western leaders saw nothing bad in destroying the regime they also considered to be anti-democratic and anti-human (Addison, 1985, pp. 54 – 112). But very soon they changed their attitudes as Nazi Germany attacked France, Netherlands, Great Britain, and other democratic countries. The direction of the geopolitics changed and even countries from other continents became involved in the war because they thought that their own freedom and very existence were in danger. That is how the war became the World War involving all the countries of the world in it (Gilbert, 2002, pp. 33 – 57).
The USA comes into the War
Countries like the United States of America and Japan joined the opposite sides of the conflict because they supported different ideologies and strived at different goals, although their own security was assured by the fact that the war was taking place on another continent. Japan was pursuing its imperialistic goals with attempts to widen its territory as much as possible and to become more influential and powerful in the sphere of international relations (Evans, 2007, pp. 223 – 227). The USA claimed that its main goal in the war was to defend the principles of democracy and freedom in the countries suppressed by the Nazis. The US officials stated that although there was no actual danger to the country itself, there was a considerable threat to democracy in the whole world. Lead by this the USA considered it to be a proper decision to join the democratic countries of Europe in fighting Nazism. The motivation of the United States was perfectly explained in the speech by President Roosevelt which was later called “The Four Freedoms Speech” (Calvocoressi, 1991, pp. 45 – 76).
The Four Freedoms Speech
The principles of the democracy defense formulated by President Roosevelt in January 1941were a kind of appeal to the whole nation to support the struggling democracies in their pursuit of liberty and peace: “Armed defense of democratic existence is now being gallantly waged on four continents. If that defense fails, all the population and all the resources of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australasia will be dominated by the conquerors. The total of those populations and their resources greatly exceeds the sum total of the population and resources of the whole of the Western Hemisphere – many times over.”(Roosevelt, 1941, p.1). In these lines, we can see the essence of the speech and of the goals pursued by the United States joining the democratic struggle.
This speech is called so because it reveals the four fundamental freedoms that make every society a democratic one in any epoch and under any circumstances. The first freedom is the freedom of speech in every society. It takes the leading position because all other do not have sense without this one. Only people who are not afraid to speak their minds can fight and change something they do not like. The second one is the freedom to worship any religion one likes. This principle is fundamental for the inner peace of every personality and basic for establishing a free democratic state. The third is the freedom from want, which means that every member of any society must have means for living including food, money, clothes, education, etc. And the fourth is the freedom from fear which presupposes the cutting of the armaments of all countries with the purpose that any of them could resort to aggression against other countries (Roosevelt, 1941, p.3).
Roosevelt states that “this nation has placed its destiny in the hands and heads and hearts of its million of free men and women; and its faith in freedom under the guidance of God. Freedom means the supremacy of human rights everywhere.” (Roosevelt, 1941, p.4).
The British Welfare State
The report by Sir William Beveridge is another document that shows how all the democracies of the world planned to live after they win a victory over Nazism. The title of the report explains what it is dedicated to. The Welfare State is the idea by Beveridge which presupposes the interaction between the state and every citizen. William Beveridge determines that there are five giants in the way of reconstruction, they are Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness. And Want is the most important and the most dangerous rival of any constructivism that is why it is the question of crucial importance to overcome it in order to start building the state of a new type.
The work by Beveridge touched all the important spheres of human life that needed to be improved during the war and as soon as it was won. The author examined the issues of poverty, equality of rights of men and women, unemployment and means of its overcoming and, of course, the problem of establishing the Welfare State in Great Britain as the result of all the above-mentioned problems being solved (Williams, 1987, pp. 78 – 99). The first step to fight poverty was, according to Mr. Beveridge, in the common insurance available for all people irrespective of their financial status, level of income, or social position. He thought that in the time of war it was possible to unite people who were earlier divided by various prejudices. The Want that emerged with the war made state borders less important for the cooperation of nations and social groups. The author also suggests that in case if a person is unemployed for some period of time, then he or she will be provided with all necessary things for exi8stence until the job for this person is found:” Unemployment benefit, disability benefit, basic retirement pension after a transition period, and training benefit will be at the same rate, irrespective of previous earnings. This rate will provide by itself the income necessary for subsistence in all normal cases.” (Williams, 1987, pp. 111 – 123).
Conclusion
So, as it can be easily seen from the above-analyzed data, WWII had serious effects for the countries of the West involved in it. Although no war can be assessed positively after this armed conflict countries began to think more of human rights, their equality, and defense. As soon as the war had begun, the authorities of the USA, Great Britain, and other democratic countries understood the necessity of certain measures that would change the way human society was living and help to avoid wars like that in the future (McWilliams, 2001, pp. 345 – 347). Americans formulated the four basic freedoms that every democracy needs and waged war for the defense of them. British people also understood that something was wrong in the society if it allowed WWII to occur and started to formulate the changes that were necessary. Beveridge suggested the plan of overcoming the Want, which improved all the spheres determining human life (Wakeman, 2003, pp. 56 – 78). All these steps affected positively the countries’ reconstruction after WWII.
Works Cited
Adas, M. and Stearns, P.N. and Schwartz, S.B., 2006. Turbulant Passage: A Global History of the Twentieth Century, 3rd ed, Longman, New York.
Addison, P., 1985. Now the War is Over: A Social History of Britain 1945-51. Pimlico, London.
Calvocoressi, P., 1991. World Politics since 1945, 6th ed., Longman, London.
Evans, P. and Hewitt, J. and Puckering, A. and Spur, M. and Sweeney, S., 2007. Twentieth Century History: 1945-2000. HTAV, Melbourne.
Gilbert F. and Large, D.C., 2002. The end of the European era: 1890 to the present, 5th ed. W. W. Norton, New York.
Gilbert M., 2004. The Second World War: A Complete History. Revised edition. Holt Paperbacks, New York.
McWilliams, W.C. and Piotrowski H., 2001. The World Since 1945: A History of International Relations, 5th ed., Lynne Rienner, London.
Roosevelts TRHe Four Freedoms Speech. 2008. Web.
Wakeman, R. (ed), 2003. Themes in modern European history since 1945 Routledge, London.
Williams J. and Willaims K., 1987. A Beveridge Reader (Allen & Unwin, Boston / London.