The term computer ethics was coined first in the 1970s by Walter Maner and it is only in the 1990s that the term found its way into professional development programs. Ethics refers to standards, rules, or behavioral codes that guide people on how they are supposed to behave in various situations and therefore computer ethics are the rules and standards that are supposed to be followed by all computer users irrespective of their profession, social status and localities. Computer ethics is also a philosophical branch that deals with how professionals should conduct themselves when it comes to computer use. This research paper will basically focus on all issues surrounding computer ethics. It will give various definitions as different writers have defined it.
The paper will start by defining the term and will then proceed to discuss issues that surround computer ethics and ends with a short recap of the key points that have been discussed. In the very last page of this paper is a list of all the sources that have been consulted properly formatted in accordance with APA formatting style.
As a field of inquiry, computer ethics originated from the works of Norbert Weiner, A professor in MIT who visualized the ethical and social consequences arising from information technology in the 1940s. In the following decade, Don Parker studied unethical computerized activities but like Weiner, he neither used nor mentioned in his study the term computer ethics. The term came into use with the work of Walter Maner where he studied the ethical consequences attributed to computer revolution or technology. It was James Moor in his article entitled ‘What is computer ethics?’ that provided the proper definition of the term. He tried to present some ethical problems in his work that are associated with the advent of computer technology (Bynum, 1985: 165).
There are various definitions of computer ethics according to different authors. Some define it as a branch of philosophical study that deals with ethical issues surrounding computer use but according to Moor, computer ethics refers to, “analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology” (Stamatellos, 2007: 2). Computer ethics as per Stamatellos (2007: 3) denotes a systematic study of ethical and social impacts brought about by the advent of computers into the society.
Computer technology is no doubt the height of civilization in terms of technological advancement and it shows how man has become more ingenuous and sophisticated. Computer has made work easier and it provides one with a range of options in executing programs but apart from this, there are a bunch of ethical questions that arise from its usage. Computer ethical questions arise when there appears to be a policy vacuum in the ways people handle this technology. It is a basic requirement that any field of study, companies and institutions among others to have codes of behavior and computer technology being a field of inquiry is no exception. The codes of ethics are guidelines about how people should behave themselves professionally and failure to comply to them impacts negatively on individuals and the society at large something that leads to the emergence of computer ethical questions.
As a branch of philosophical inquiry according to Forester and Morrison (1993: 17), computer ethics deals with rules, policies and various legislations concerning computers. It also concerns itself with available ethical alternatives and social implications that arise from computer technology. Examples of computer ethics related questions involves the acquisition of computers and other related gadgets such as hardware and software, information storage devices and the security of the information stored, data dissemination through digital means, data procession and how people interact with one another through computers. Questions about computer ethics focus on, and call for computer accountability and responsibility in its usage.
Ethical questions are something that leave many at crossroads as people are not very sure of how to behave or what they are supposed to do when computer related problems arise. Many people find themselves in a dilemma when their computers crash due to technical problems and they start asking themselves who should be blamed for that problem. Is it the programmer, the designer of the system, software installer or themselves? It is ethically right for any computer company to give computer owners a guarantee of a certain period so that if their systems malfunction, they can either be replaced or repaired without being charged (Murad, 1995).
Another computer ethics issue that arises is over the storage of information on the computer. Ethical question that arise is how secure are individuals’ or companies’ information is secure when stored on computers and on other computer assisted storage devices. The question is whether people should rely on their computers as safe means of storing information. If the information stored is accessed from the computer without any authorization by the person who stored that information, who is to blame? Information that is not intended to be accessed by everybody is in most cases protected using a password. No one should try to access information that is not meant for him/her as this is committing a computer crime and it calls the question of computer ethics. There are also hackers who intercept e-mails while they are being sent and yet they are not the intended recipients. They may disclose information that was supposed to remain a secret or distort the content of the information something that can impact negatively on the targeted individuals and the society at large (Deborah, 2001: 56). It is morally wrong to access information that is computer protected without authorization as that is lack of computer ethics which require one to access only what is meant for them and not to hack personal and company details.
According to Herman (2004: 32), computers require software for them to work properly. It takes the ingenuity of software developers to come up with such programs and computer users are supposed to respect intellectual right by making sure that they only buy genuine software. There are others who sell pirated software thereby ripping the benefits that are meant for the developer. This is indirectly kills their creativity. Hackers are also not left behind in this as they look for fake activation codes and sell these programs as if they are theirs’. Also there are those who deliberately go for pirated software to avoid paying much and this calls the question of computer ethics. It is ethically wrong to install hacked software in ones computer as this is lack of appreciation to the work of the developer of the program and that amounts to computer crime (Stamatellos 2007: 43).
There are other people who spread malicious programs to innocent people without their knowledge mostly through e-mails and through other infected software. This also amounts to computer crime as some of these programs accesses stored information and sends it to the ‘thief’ or hacker. There are others who crash the whole system by using malicious programs which are commonly known as virus so that you can buy counter programs such as antivirus so as to make profit. Should people really be doing that at the expense of innocent computer users? This is ethically wrong and the behavior should be condemned.
Computer ethics is a recent topic. Though various studies concerning ethics in computer were studied, the term was yet to be coined. It was coined first by Maner and it came to be applied in professional development programs in 1970s. Computer ethics is all about the rules, standards and behavior codes pertaining computer use. There are a number of issues where computer ethics arise for example there are people who develop malicious programs to crash other people’s computers, others access stored information by hacking into password protected computers, others copy software instead of buying original products and this amounts to piracy while others hack software activation codes only to sell them as if they are theirs and this is a computer crime. This kills the motivation of those developers as their intellectual property right is not respected and the hacker rips the benefits that were meant for the program developer.
References:
Bynum, T. Ward (1985) Computers and Ethics. A special issue of the journal Metaphilosophy. Blackwell. 164-178.
Deborah G. Johnson (2001) Computer Ethics. Prentice Hall.
Forester, Tom and Morrison, Perry. (1993) Computer ethics: cautionary tales and ethical dilemmas in computing. 2nd Ed, MIT Press.
Herman T. Tavani (2004). Ethics and Technology: Ethical Issues in an Age of Information and Communication Technology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Murad, Laith. (1995) Computer Ethics Accessed on April 1, 2009 from http://www.geocities.com/lool95/computer_ethics1.htm
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2008) Computer and Information Ethics. Accessed from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-computer/#DefComEth
Stamatellos, Giannis. (2007) Computer ethics: a global perspective. Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Computer Essentials
Software is the programs and data a computer uses in either running the system or just for some other use. Meaning, everything that is stored in the computer memory is software. They are intangibles and yet they are very important in a computer system depending on their purpose (Ledvina, 2002).
There are two types of programs in a computer system, the application programs and the system programs. Application programs are applications use by a person for a specific purpose. Some examples of a computer application are word processors, game programs, data bases, etc. On the other hand, system programs are the culprit behind the running of software and hardware simultaneously. Operating system is one of the important systems that the computer has. Operating system is the coordinator of all components of a computer system. Operating system is responsible for the starting and running of other programs in the computer. Examples of known operating systems are Microsoft Windows 98 and LINUX. The difference between application programs and system programs specifically operating systems are not clear and are subject to controversy. The only difference that can be seen is that the operating system is a needed program and application programs are luxury program (Ledvina, 2002).
A program file is a file created with commands and instructions that is needed in order to be run or executed by the computer (Yourdictionary.com, 2009). On the other hand, data file is file created by a program in the computer. Specific data files are created by a specific program files (Yourdictionary.com, 2009). Therefore, data files can only be used by the program file(s) that created it. Example, a document file which is a data file created by the Microsoft word application can only be run by Microsoft word application or other programs associated with MS word document files (Kuhn Consulting, 2001).
Microsoft Windows Explorer is used in managing files in a computer. Windows Explorer uses tree diagram to associate and manage drives, files and folders. Files are arranged like a tree where the root is the drives and the stems and leaves are the files and folders. Windows Explorer can perform many functions in arranging and managing files in a computer. Some of the functions that are already present at the toolbar are the search function, copy, cut, paste, delete, and the folder views. Search function allows the user to search for a specific file in the computer with having the troubles of opening all folders and drives. The copy, cut and paste functions are simple functions that allows you to duplicate and move files and folders from one drive or folder to another drive or folder. The view functions allow you to change the view of the windows in order for the user to clearly see the contents of the folder (Kuhn Consulting, 2001).
References
Ledvina, J. (2002). Chapter 1 – Introduction to Computer Systems. Retrieved February 26, 2009 from http://www.kiv.zcu.cz/~ledvina/vyuka/Java/javanotes/Notes/chap01/ch01_1.html
Yourdictionary.com. (2009). data file. In Webster’s New World Telecom Dictionary. Retrieved February 26, 2009 from www.yourdictionary.com/telecom/data-file
Yourdictionary.com. (2009). program file. In Webster’s New World Telecom Dictionary. Retrieved February 26, 2009 from www.yourdictionary.com/telecom/program-file
Kuhn Consulting. (2001). Microsoft Windows Explorer. Retrieved February 26, 2009 from http://www.foxhillfarm.org/Groups/Computer/CC_Newsletters/Windows_Explorer.pdf
Tivo Executive Summary
TiVo is a digital video recorder that allows viewers to watch what they want, when they want to watch it, and it allows pause and instant replay functions of live TV by storing information on a hard drive. It gives they user or users to ability to create their own personal television schedule by using the regular television programs. TiVo’s features include the ability to fast-forward, ultimately skip, through commercials and also input their own viewing preferences. TiVo also has popular features such as the “season pass” which allows users to specify their favorite shows, so that all episodes were recorded automatically.
One of the most popular strength of TiVo was the “thumbs up” and “thumbs down” buttons that allowed viewers to indicate how much they liked or disliked what they were watching. A big problem TiVo faced was getting people to “adopt” their product. With many features and functions, it was not as easy to explain TiVo as it was to experience, making it difficult to convince prospective customers. Due to the high 30-hour recording capacity of TiVo, it was more expensive than most televisions sets and over double the price of most satellite dishes.
How could historical TV viewer habits change so dramatically with the introduction of one new product? TiVo was in a new category with no real reference points, which discouraged and delayed consumers making their purchase decision. With the ability to give clients the opportunity to skip advertisements, TiVo faced a significant threat to the advertisement industry, which is a huge aspect of the whole TV industry as it is very dependent on advertising revenues. Television Networks wanted TiVo to complement their business instead of competing against it. They want to use TiVO to improve advertising revenues.
TiVo also had the ability of motorizing the viewer rates of their programs so they could improve their strategy to increase markets share and gain competitive advantage. Advertisers wanted TiVo to conduct more personalized and targeted advertising. By monitoring consumer preferences, advertisers could know what types of ads are more effective and what types are not. Cable and Satellite Companies want TiVo to be a complement to their services. An increase in market share would be a result of synergies that could occur when combining the variety of channels they have with the flexibility of TiVo.
TiVo did face some competition. Replay Networks, a more expensive product, posed a threat due to similar characterstics of its product and also to the large commission it pays to the salespeople. Ultimate TV, which was from Microsoft, posed a greater threat mainly because it combines several products like Internet and Email into the same product. Microsoft has the adcantage of introducing its digital video recording device through one million consumers who already subscribed to its WebTV subsidiary.
It also could claim that it was more technologically advanced that TiVo. However, it was coming into the DVR business at a later time and because it claimed to be better than TiVo, it was implied that it was going to be introduced at a higher price. TiVo’s action plan had a few options: possible merger with DirecTV, a price reduction from $999 for the 30-hour set to $399 for a 14-hour set, or to use different media to pass on different messages to consumers through different sets of TV commercials.
Merging with DirecTV was a good option because of DirecTV’s large client base which TiVo could use to leverage its product to a large number of customers. With the program and channel variety of DirecTV and the flexibility of TiVo, customers would be given a great combination. Lowering the price as well as the storage capability would be another good idea. It would allow for more inventory to be used for promotional purposes. At the original $999 price for a new product without any reference point for advertising would repel potential customers.
By using remaining 14-hour units as promotion items, TiVo would give potential customers the opportunity to experience TiVo rather than having it be explained, which was an initial problem for the product. Using different media to advertise different aspects of TiVo causes an issue of removing reliability in the message that TiVo would be trying to pass on to consumers. Not all consumers would get the experience TiVo was promoting in all the different media. This kind of advertising could lead to consumers not getting the whole picture because they only see fragments in the different media.
TiVo need to market more towards the general TV audience, not just towards early adopters. By not advertising directly to early adopters, TiVo lessens to possibly of less effective advertisement. TiVo may be seen by one consumer as a superior VCR, while others focus exclusively on the season pass and live TV features. If TiVo wanted to be successful in marketing to a general audience, then their plan to let to lower the price from $999 to $399 would be most effective. By adjusting the price, TiVo would be seen as a more sensible purchase to the public.
TiVo should also increase their technical support by having in-home installation and basic function explainations, similar to what Dell does with computers. Similarly, TiVo should continue to sell their product in major electronic stores with a mock living room instore setup. A full setup TiVo entertainment system could help demonstrate to customers how it actually worked. TiVo should also implement referral marketing to be used as an effective way to connect with the target market. With 71% of electronic equipment being influenced by friends or relatives, this could be a hugely successful implementation.
TiVo should provide new customers in the target markets with direct mail offer containing coupons for their friends and family to receive a free TiVo 30-day trail. For every new customer brought in by a current customer, a free month of TiVo service should be provide to the original customer. Incentives like this work very well for Bank of America, as they offer $100 dollars to existing customers if they get other people to sign up for certain types of bank accounts. Above all else, TiVo needs to reduce the gap between their product, advertisers and networks by making TiVo more of a friend than an enemy.
The slogan “program your own network” is harmful to TiVo as it alienates networks and advertisers. Instead of posing a threat, TiVo needs to work with networks so that it can provide increased product sampling, expand primetime and provide viewer feedback. For advertisers, TiVo can provide more predictability of audience size and characteristics. With relevant advertising and quality programming, TiVo could help evolve television towards a more customer-focused product that significantly improves value proposition.