Introduction
The end of the Second World War led to the rise of two major global powers, namely, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R., who emerged victoriously. The two nations had different political and economic ideologies, which made them suspicious of each other.
America’s economic and political system was capitalistic in nature, and it favored liberal political and economic practices. On the other hand, the Soviet Union practiced communism, which gave very little room for private enterprises to thrive. This paper discusses how the Cold War that occurred after 1945 influenced U.S. governmental foreign and domestic policies.
Main Arguments
The Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. occurred due to the desire of two nations to exert their political influence on other nations across the globe. Soon after the defeat of Germany and other axis powers, the Soviet Army cordoned off some sections of Berlin which made it difficult for American and British troops to enter the city using roads. As a result, they opted to use airlifts to provide food and other important supplies to the city’s residents.
Afterward, the sharp divisions between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. caused Germany to split because both sides were not able to reach an amicable settlement on how the territory was going to be governed. This situation was replicated in Eastern Europe, where the Soviet Union under Stalin’s leadership sponsored armed rebellion against governments that failed to adopt communism. For instance, the Soviet Union used its power to control Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.
Soon after the Second World War, the U.S. became aware of the threat posed by the Soviet Union to international peace and stability. This made President Harry Truman opt for a containment policy to control the spread of communist ideologies into other parts of the world. The policy entailed the use of both soft and hard tactics to counter the military and economic influence of the Soviet Union.
Ultimately, this led to a bipolar geopolitical system dominated by the two superpowers, which influenced economic, political as well as military activities in different parts of the world. In addition, they competed with one another by taking different positions on important global matters. As a result, these competing interests resulted in constant diplomatic conflicts, which heightened political tensions between the two superpowers.
The Marshall Plan, which was developed by the Truman administration in 1947, was one of the main methods the U.S. used to contain the influence of the Soviet Union. This policy was used to offer support to sixteen countries in Europe to rebuild their economies so that they could overcome the destructive effects of World War II. The Marshall Plan laid the ground for strong multilateral relations between Western Europe and the U.S.
The funds obtained allowed European countries to revitalize their economies. As a result, from 1947 to 1952, major European economies registered impressive growth rates, and this helped to prevent the spread of communism in Europe. In addition, the U.S. government also instituted policies that encouraged high budgetary allocations on military and national security activities to deter the Soviet expansionist ambitions.
The establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization that included the U.S., Britain, and France in 1949 fostered strong military ties between the three states. Subsequently, the Soviet Union, together with its allies, used the Warsaw pact to establish an alternative military alliance that would serve as a counterweight to the NATO. However, the two superpowers avoided direct confrontation because they knew the nuclear warheads in their possession were highly dangerous.
This encouraged them to support proxy wars in different parts of the world to strengthen their international influence. For instance, the Korean war of 1953 had made the two states support opposing sides, and as a result, two countries emerged. They were also involved in another proxy war in Vietnam, where the U.S. lost a lot of its troops and incurred heavy financial losses.
The mutual hostility between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. threatened world peace, especially during the Cuban missile crisis in the early 1960s. President John F. Kennedy’s administration was opposed to the establishment of missile sites in Cuba because it was suspected that the U.S.S.R. government intended to keep nuclear weapons there. However, the two nations had been able to resolve the crisis, and afterward, the Soviet Union stopped the military buildup in Cuba.
This crisis was one of the biggest threats to global peace in the post war period, and it motivated subsequent U.S. governments to develop more sophisticated weapons to counter the Soviet threat. Two decades later, the Reagan administration developed new military technology that placed the U.S. ahead of the Soviet Union, which was facing economic and political problems. Inevitably, the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, and this heralded the end of the Cold War while the U.S. remained dominant in world politics.
Conclusion
The Cold War had a significant impact on global politics. The U.S. had to contend with the rising power of the Soviet Union, and this motivated its leaders to do more to safeguard its domestic as well as international interests. Moreover, the collapse of the Soviet Union showed that capitalism was a better economic model than communism.
The Umayyad-Hashemite Civil War And The Birth Of The Sunni-Shiite Islamic Schism
Introduction
According to the history of the Arab dynasties, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai was the ancestor of the Umayyad family, as well as, Prophet Muhammad. According to the history of the Arabs, “Muhammad descended from Abd Manaf through his son Hashim, while the Umayyad family descended from Abd Manaf via Abd-Shams’ son Umayya” (Esposito 6).
Therefore, the Umayyad family and the Hashemite family belong to one tribe, which is the Quraish tribe of Abd Manaf. However, the two families belong to different clans. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, a continuous rivalry emerged between the Hashemite clan and the Umayyad clan (Esposito 8). The Hashemite and Umayyad were both attracted to the Caliphate position because the Caliph would succeed Prophet Muhammad.
The succession disputes between the two clans later culminated into the major split of Muslims, which resulted in the birth of Sunni and Shia Muslims. This research paper examines the Umayyad –Hashemite civil war and the birth of the Sunni-Shiite schism from 656-680.
Background to the Umayyad-Hashemite Civil War
The severity of the tribal conflict between the Umayyad and the Hashemite intensified after the battle of Badr. During the battle of Badr, the Hashemite killed some of the leaders who occupied senior ranks in the Umayyad clan (Berkey 72-73). As a result, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb developed an opposition against Prophet Muhammad and the Islamic religion.
Abu Sufyan was determined to eliminate the followers of Muhammad and the Islamic religion. Consequently, Abu Sufyan organized the battle of Uhud in which Prophet Muhammad and his followers were defeated. Despite the defeat that Prophet Muhammad had suffered, he managed to seize the city of Mecca after a period of five years.
The conquest of Mecca by Muhammad was a major blow to the Umayyad and intensified the hatred, which they had against the Hashemite. However, Abu Sufyan and his wife later converted to Islam. These rivalries between the Umayyad and the Hashemite clans set a stage for the eventual battle of Karbala.
After the death of Prophet Mohammed in 632, Abu Bakr who was his closest friend succeeded him. In 634 Umar became the second Caliph following the death of Abu Bakr. Umar was a pagan who converted to Islam through the teachings and influence of Prophet Muhammad. Umar organized several conquests during his reign. As a result, the Islamic empire grew to become vast.
However, in 644, he died, and Uthman of the Umayyad clan succeeded him as the Caliph. He reigned from 644-656. During Uthman’s reign, he appointed his close clan’s men to occupy the senior positions in the empire (Berkey 75-77). Most of the Hashemite were opposed to Uthman’s appointees. For instance, the Hashemite opposed the appointment of Marwan bin al-Hakam as Uthman’s top advisor.
Therefore, the tension that initially existed between the Umayyad clan and the Hashemite was stirred up. The Hashemite were against the appointment of Marwan because Prophet Muhammad had exiled Marwan together with his father from Medina.
Consequently, the reign of Uthman increased tribal hostility between the Umayyad and the Hashemite clan. Consequently, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who was the son of Abu Bakr organized for the assassination of Uthman in 656.
The Umayyad –Hashemite Civil War
The assassination of Uthman led to the rise of Ali into the Caliphate position. Ali was Muhammad’s cousin; hence he was a Hashemite. Due to inadequate political experience, Ali faced several oppositions, which forced him to move his capital to a place known as Kufa from its original location in Mecca. It was during Ali’s reign from 656 that a serious civil war also known as the First Fitna erupted between the Umayyad clan and the Hashemite clan (Esposito 9-10).
The civil war lasted from 656-661. Muawiyah and Marwan who were both relatives of Uthman perpetuated the war. The two wanted the culprits who had assassinated Uthman arrested. Therefore, they manipulated several people and waged war against Ali. In 656, Muawiyah’s troops and Ali’s troops engaged in the battle of the Camel. In this battle, Ali emerged victoriously.
The battle of the Camel also motivated Ali to wage another war known as the battle of Siffin against Muawiyah. However, the battle of Siffin came to a halt before either of the parties had achieved success. Both Muawiyah and Ali appointed arbitrators to pacify both sides. Amr bin al-As who was Muawiyah’s arbitrator managed to convince Ali’s arbitrator that “both Ali and Muawiyah should step down to allow for the election of a new Caliph” (Berkey 79-80).
Majority of Ali’s followers were shocked by the decision, and some revolted against Ali. “The group that revolted against Ali came to be known as the Kharijites meaning those who leave” (Berkey 80). The opposing groups further weakened Ali’s position as a Caliph.
During Ali’s reign, large parts of the Islamic empire were lost to their enemies. In 661 one of the Kharijite’s assassinated Ali in a mosque at Kufa. Following the death of Ali, the Muslim community split into the Shiites and the Sunnis (Payne 91). The death of Ali also led to the rise of Muawiyah into the caliphate position. In 680, one of Ali’s sons known as Hussein together with his seventy-two followers were assassinated at a place known as Karbala.
The Birth of the Sunni-Shiite Islamic Schism 656-680
The assassination of Ali together with his followers led to the major split in the Islamic religion. The assassination of Ali in 661 led to two distinct Muslim sects namely the Sunnis and the Shiites. The split of the Muslim community traces its origin to the period after the death of Prophet Muhammad. After the death of Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr his closest friend succeeded him.
However, a group of the Muslim community was against the rise of Abu Bakr into the position of a Caliph. Those who opposed Abu Bakr considered his appointment as illegitimate because they believed that the true heir of Prophet Muhammad was Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ali was a cousin to Prophet Muhammad, as well as, his son in law. Both the supporters of Abu Bakr and Ali strongly believed that their candidate was the true heir of Prophet Muhammad.
The Muslim who supported the rise of Abu Bakr into the Caliphate position was known as the Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama’ah or the Sunni Muslims (Lapidus 363-385). On the other hand, the Shiites were the supporters of Ali who believed that Ali was the real inheritor of Prophet Muhammad’s position.
The term Sunni has a similar meaning to the term Sunnis, which means “oral traditions and interpretations of the Koran” (Lapidus 363-385). According to the Sunni Muslim, a Caliph should assume the Caliphate position after an election by the Islamic religious leaders. Therefore, they oppose the assumption of the Caliphate position based on the relationship that exists between the successor and Prophet Muhammad.
Shia means an aide of Ali. According to the Shia Ali was the first Imam after the death of Prophet Muhammad. They believe that the true heirs of Muhammad are descendants of Ali. Therefore, after the death of Ali, his sons Hassan and Hussein were the second and the third Imams respectively.
They also believe that there were twelve Imams. Despite the differences that exist between the Sunnis and the Shiites, there is a limited conflict between them. However, between the two sects of Muslims are extremist factions, which believe in radicalism as opposed to other Muslims. Despite the differences, the Muslims main book of reference is the Quran.
Conclusion
The Umayyad-Hashemite civil war is attributed to the succession disputes, which took center stage after the death of Prophet Muhammad. The first Caliph to succeed Prophet Muhammad was Abu Bakr who was not accepted by the entire Muslim fraternity because some Muslims regarded Ali as the rightful successor of the throne.
Therefore, when Ali rose to the Caliph position, he faced a lot of opposition from several people especially Muawiyah who was from the Umayyad dynasty. The opposition of Ali finally led to the outbreak of the First Fitna (civil war) in the Islamic dynasty. The civil war culminated into the assassination of Ali, which led to the slit of Muslims.
Works Cited
Berkey, Jonathan Porter. The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print.
Esposito, John L. The Oxford History of Islam. London: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.
Lapidus, Ira M. “The Separation of State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic Society.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6.4 (1975): 363-385. Print.
Payne, Robert. The History of Islam. New York: Dorset Press, 1990. Print.
Ysujiro Ozu’s Biography: Japanese Director Life And Career
Background
Yasuhiro Ozu was born on 12 December 1903 in the Fukagawa district of Tokyo where his parents were residing. His father provided for the family by selling fertilizer, and he was forced to send his children to his rural home in Matsusaka because the urban life was very expensive. Ozu attended Meiji Nursery and primary schools and later joined Ujiyamada High School at the age of 13 years. His favorite sport was judo, and when he was admitted to be a border at the school, he spends most of his time practicing it.
He was on the wrong side of the school administration because of skipping classes to watch films in the nearby urban center (Richie 19). His favorite movie was The Last Days of Pompei, and he could not miss a session whenever it was showing in the local cinema halls. The lack of stringent rules that ensured children were not allowed to enter cinema halls enabled him to visit many local showrooms, watch movies at the expense of his education, and work at home.
Critics believe that his interest in film production cropped from the many instances he had encountered regarding movies and how they were produced (Standish 11). They claim that he was surprised that most movies, including local and foreign, had western themes, and their presentations lacked variation.
Therefore, he started thinking of the possibilities of having a movie that would depict Japanese practices and would be produced without the fanfare screen presentations that falsify themes, characters, and styles (Schrader and Richie 31). Unconfirmed sources claim that he had homosexual tendencies, and that is why he never married, and there is no instance in his life where he was involved in an intimate affair with a lady.
In addition, others argue that he was expelled from boarding at the age of 17 years because of expressing interest in having an intimate relationship with a boy in a lower class. This expulsion forced him to commute to school by train every day and thus offered him opportunities to watch movies during weekends and after school hours (Richie 37).
He applied for admission at Kobe University to study economics, but his application was declined on two occasions. In 1922 he applied for admission into a teacher training college but did not get the minimum entry grade. However, he did not give up and pursued his dream of becoming a teacher by applying to teach at a school in Mie area.
His interest in movies did not die despite the remoteness of this region, and he traveled from the school to nearby centers to watch movies during weekends. His death is among the most controversial because it occurred on a similar date as his birthday. Some people argue that he committed suicide even though most records show that he died after struggling with cancer for a long time.
Other critics believe that his closeness to his mother may have contributed to his early death after she died (Schrader and Richie 38). They argue that he was very close to her, and her death troubled him very much. A minor percentage of critics claim that he may have committed suicide because he was unable to tame the western film ideology that was gaining popularity in Japan.
Film Career
Ozu’s film career started by default and the presence of his uncle in the Shochiku Film Company enabled him to get a job in this organization as an assistant in the cinematography sector (Stringer and Phillips 28). His father was against this idea and wanted him to be a teacher because he had not seen any successful Japanese producer. In addition, acting and singing were not professional careers according to his father, and that is why he was determined to ensure Ozu became a teacher or military officer.
He rose in ranks after attending a military academy, and by 1926 he was a third assistant director in the company and continued to build his screenwriting skills during his free time. He was summoned by the studio’s director to explain why he had physically abused another employee, but this offered him an opportunity to present his writing prowess to the highest office in the company (Richie 59). This followed promotions, including becoming the director of the period film department in 1927.
This office gave him adequate time to sharpen his writing skills and concentrate on producing his first film called Sword of Penitence. This opportunity enabled him to meet and interact with Kogo Noda. They agreed that he would dramatize Ozu’s story and later Kogo became his college.
The year 1928 was a fruitful and turning point for his career when the head of his studio (Shiro Kido) recommended that the company should focus on making short comedy films without any star actors to attract the local and international market that was tired of common stage names (Standish 33). Ozu seized this opportunity and made a series of these films without knowing that this was going to mark a turning point in his life and the cinema industry.
This explains why most critics argue that Ozu did not have a plan regarding his film production because most things happened just by coincidences that favored his side. He started developing such distinctive characteristic of his movies as a low camera position in 1928 when he made his first movie called Body Beautiful (released on 1 December 1929). This followed a series of films that did not feature any stars (Stringer and Phillips 59).
All actors were given equal roles, and those that had more responsibilities were not made to appear superior to others. In 1929 (September) he made his first film with stars called I Graduated but… with Kinuyo Tanaka and Minoru Takada as the main actors. This won the confidence of the director and the company and thus enabled him to be endowed with the An Introduction to Marriage top star Sumiko Kurishima in 1930 (Schrader and Richie 43).
The director had no choice but to invite him on a trip to a hot spring to recognize, appreciate and encourage him to continue making astounding productions that improved the image of the company and generated reasonable returns. He developed and used the name James Maki as a pen name for his career as a screenwriter.
His film Young Miss won him admiration from the international scene, and it was evident that he had become a big name in the film making the industry. He appeared in the film magazine Kinema Jumpo’s for the first time after producing this film, and that is when his works caught the attention of international film producers.
Another unique aspect that distinguished his works was the 1932 film I Was Born, But… that got the attention of social critics who ridiculed him for using serious overtones on youths. This caused a heated debate in the Japanese movie industry because social critics believed that the movie was inappropriate for adolescents because it promoted the use of vulgar language and promoted pornographic activities among them.
However, these debates did more good than harm to his reputation because they enabled him to focus on issues that generate national interests and get the attention of Japanese and other nationals. The criticism he received in 1932 made him famous, and that is why he was contacted by the Ministry of Education to make a short documentary featuring Kokiguro VI (Stringer and Phillips 71).
He used the soundtrack, Kagami Shishi. It was a title of Kabuki dance that was carried out by Kokiguro VI. He was very reluctant to switch to the production of these types of movies even though most of the other filmmakers had already started embracing the new technique. However, he reluctantly started making talk films by producing The Only Son in 1936. It is not known why he did not achieve box-office success even though he had received countless praises, awards, and criticism from the public and film producers.
Ozu’s film career was marked by interruptions when he joined the military, and most people predicted his long absence from this industry. However, he had a unique way of bouncing back and hitting harder when his absence started germinating. Most people thought that the Second Sino-Japanese War would dump his spirit and discourage him from continuing with music production, but it seems the war rejuvenated his spirit and gave him opportunities to widen his perception about the film industry (Standish 51).
He always came with new ideas and techniques that transformed the film industry, and this means that the war offered him opportunities to mediate on his career and identify what he had to do to improve it. It is not easy for a producer to focus on two unrelated issues and at the same time keep mind stable.
Most people that join the military abandon their past careers and focus on issues about wars, weapons, battlefields, and enemies; however, Ozu was different, and his performance after the war was better than previous ones (Schrader and Richie 51).
It is easy to conclude that he decided not to get married to ensure he was able to concentrate on his family and visit his sick mother without disturbance. In addition, film production kept him very busy, and that is why his life had no known instances of a woman who influenced him. The public expects him to have a string of scandals that are common in the film industry, but Ozu’s life is plain and has no question marks when it comes to social issues (Richie 66).
It is necessary to explain that the development of the modern film industry has not had a significant impact on the legacy that Ozu left, and thus Japan continues to celebrate him for his astounding achievements. His film production skills focus on important issues that the producer wants to present to the public.
He avoided scenes that create unnecessary emotions and concentrated on the major themes that motivated authors to write their works. He is known for making masterpieces like Late Spring, The Flavor of Green Tea over Rice and Tokyo Story in 1949, 1952 and 1953 respectively. Most foreign countries did not recognize or appreciate his works until the 1960s when Japan could no longer hold his prowess.
Works Cited
Richie, Donald. Ozu: His Life and Films. California: University of California Press, 1977. Print.
Schrader, Paul and Donald Richie. A Hundred Years of Japanese Film: A Concise History, with a Selective Guide to DVDs and Videos. New York: Kodansha, 2012. Print.
Standish, Isolde. A New History of Japanese Cinema: A Century of Narrative Film. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2006. Print.
Stringer, Julian and Alistair Phillips. Japanese Cinema: Texts and Contexts. London: Routledge, 2007. Print.