Liberalism as an economic thought has a relatively new history compared to other schools. Even though the financial crisis of 2007 was what brought a new wave of attention to liberalism, it can be traced back as far as Victorian times (Davies, 2014). However, neoliberalism differs from the original liberalism in several aspects. The main distinction is that the state is expected to be a real force, imposing specific ethical rules on the market instead of just relying on it. The 2008 crisis brought some serious concerns regarding the future of neoliberalism, and Lachmann (2016) states that neoliberalism might “turn out to have been just a short episode in the long history of capitalism” (p. 5). One of the reasons for that is that liberalism is not seen as a democratic force in politics (Crouch et al., 2016). Therefore, several scholars believe neoliberalism is losing its’ position.
However, some researchers see the benefit of business to society. In their work on corporate social responsibility, the Center for ethical business cultures (2010) suggests that free-market results in economic prosperity and political freedoms. There are four main types of CSR theories: instrumental, political, integrative, and ethical (Garriga and Melè 2004). However, Garriga and Melè (2004) also argue that those four types are interlinked, and academics need to develop a new theory to connect them. According to Carroll (2003), CSR’s four principal dogmas: companies must be profitable, obey the law, be ethically responsible, and be philanthropical. In the same work, the author concludes that it is beneficial for a business to comply with the law, be charitable and follow ethics (Carroll, 2003).
Some scholars are not as optimistic in their views on CSR. For example, Banerjee (2008) notices that most modern companies and businesses are more interested in their obligation to stakeholders than society. In another work, Banerjee (2014) also states that it is unrealistic to expect companies to strive towards socially significant improvements because it can often be contradictory to their financial interests. While corporate social responsibility theory tries to justify business by stating that it may be helpful to society, such a claim is not always realistic.
It is vital to discuss the influence of stakeholders on a company’s policy and decision-making. As mentioned above, there is an idea that companies are more obliged to their shareholders than to the public. There are several arguments in favor of such an approach. First of all, Kaler (2006) says that stakeholders in a way own a company, and serving public interests would violate property rights. Another argument is economic efficiency, which increases if a company is only obliged to stakeholders (Kaler, 2006). However, there are objections to both of those arguments. The first one is whether or not shareholders own companies; the second one is that the second argument does not consider customer loyalty, community support, and some other factors (Kaler, 2006).
When talking about CSR, it is also essential to mention the role of CSR consultants. In their work, Brès and Gond (2014) say that consultants play three main roles: “social and environmental issues translators,” “market boundary negotiators,” and “responsive regulations enactors” (p. 1358). The first type of consultant observes the public and social movements to help companies form their policy (Bres & Gond, 2014). As boundary negotiators, they shift boundaries to protect a company or increase its influence (Bres and Gond, 2014). Regarding the responsive regulations enactor’s role, Bres and Gond (2014) say that “consultants may play a central role in the enactment of regulations and shape the socio-cultural regulative environment of corporations through a variety of processes” (p. 27).
Good examples of how CSR forms the image of an organization are WTO and IMF. In an essay on these two organizations, Chorev and Babb (2009) state that WTO is more likely to still play a role in the international economy than the IMF in the current neoliberal crisis. He argues that this is likely to happen thanks to the organization’s equal representation strategy (Chorev & Babb, 2009). On the other hand, Ostry et al. (2016) state that IMF is the most concerned with the neoliberal agenda and where it might lead.
Another aspect important for establishing a company’s reputation is its reports to investors. Corporate reporting is what allows investors to make an opinion regarding a company and decide whether they want to invest in it or not. In work on integrated reporting, Dumay et al. (2016) argue that it requires some harmonization, meaning that reporting processes should become more transparent. This is because, at present, the public is becoming more concerned about whether it is suitable for companies only to seek profit.
Finally, the last point regarding organizations and the neoliberal crisis are global problems, such as poverty, human rights, and climate change. In a paper on sustainable development, Rockström et al. (2013) suggest that the most likely scenario countries will be developing is “business as usual” (p. 5). It means that states will compete for limited resources while not paying much attention to planetary boundaries (Rockström et al., 2013). However, sometimes a state’s policy is limited by international business. A good example is Australia which introduced a carbon tax, which led to significant confusion in the global market (Kumar et al., 2020). This case explains why business is often somewhat hesitant to adopt new policies regarding climate.
To conclude, liberalism is an economic school with a lot of influence on the modern economy. It also provokes arguments in the international community regarding the role of the state in limited companies and the role of international organizations, such as IMF and WTO, in guiding world trade. One of the biggest concerns is how the lack of restrictions may affect global problems, especially climate change.
References
Banerjee, S. B. (2008). Corporate social responsibility: The good, the bad and the ugly. Critical Sociology, 34(1), 51–79.
Banerjee, S. B. (2014). A critical perspective on corporate social responsibility: Towards a global governance framework. Critical perspectives on international business.
Brès, L., & Gond, J. P. (2014). The visible hand of consultants in the construction of the markets for virtue: Translating issues, negotiating boundaries and enacting responsive regulations. Human Relations, 67(11), 1347-1382.
Carroll, Archie. (2003). The Four Faces of Corporate Citizenship. Business and Society Review. 100. 1-7.
Center for ethical business cultures. (2010). Corporate social responsibility – The shape of a History, 1945-2004
Chorev, N., & Babb, S. (2009). The crisis of neoliberalism and the future of international institutions: A comparison of the IMF and the WTO. Theory and Society, 38(5), 459-484.
Crouch, C., Porta, D. D., & Streeck, W. (2016). Democracy in neoliberalism?. Anthropological Theory, 16(4), 497-512.
Davies, W. (2014). Neoliberalism: A bibliographic review. Theory, Culture & Society, 31(7-8), 309-317.
Dumay, J., Bernardi, C., Guthrie, J., & Demartini, P. (2016, September). Integrated reporting: A structured literature review. In Accounting forum (Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 166-185). Elsevier.
Garriga, E., & Melé, D. (2004). Corporate social responsibility theories: Mapping the territory. Journal of Business Ethics, 53(1), 51-71.
Kaler, J. (2006). Evaluating stakeholder theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 69(3), 249-268.
Kumar, S. S., Banerjee, B., de Paiva Duarte, F., & Dadich, A. (2020). The business–government nexus: Impact of government actions and legislation on business responses to climate change. Journal of Management & Organization, 26(6), 952-974.
Lachmann, R. (2016). Crisis of Neoliberalism, Crisis of the World?. University of Albany.
Ostry, J. D., Loungani, P., & Furceri, D. (2016). Neoliberalism: Oversold?-Instead of delivering growth, some neoliberal policies have increased inequality, in turn jeopardizing durable expansion. Finance & Development, 53(002).
Rockström, J., Sachs, J. D., Öhman, M. C., & Schmidt-Traub, G. (2013). Sustainable development and planetary boundaries. Sustainable Development Solutions Network.
Individual Differences Matter: Maracle’s Ravensong
Have you ever wondered about how challenging it is to live in the modern world? People are now free to express themselves to the extent that was not available a few years ago. For example, individuals may participate in a child-free movement, live a secluded life, and change their sex. Simultaneously, people should have the competency to respect cultural and social differences in their lives. Some issues arise when individuals fail to balance the two approaches. At that moment, the question “Where do you begin telling someone their world is not the only one?” emerges (Maracle, 1993, p. 72). I find this quote educative and provocative: on the one hand, it teaches society to find hope and honor resilience, and, on the other hand, it emphasizes diversity and provokes despair.
Despite the intention to respect differences in people, this requirement usually challenges a person in various ways. Maracle (1993) correctly admits that the choice of the moment plays an important role. Even the best intellectuals and authorities may remain incompetent when they have to recognize the borders. It is not enough to identify a person’s culture and background, but it is necessary not to interfere with their development and self-growth. In other words, it is inevitable for people to live in different worlds and establish their unique perspectives. Still, they have to learn how to cooperate, communicate, and demonstrate equality, dignity, and fairness.
It is impossible to imagine how people can live without fundamental freedoms. Without them, a totalitarian order will replace the existing democratic society. Now, the developed world is associated with liberties that allow individuals to get education, travel, communicate, and others. However, it by no means denotes that people may value their freedoms more than those of other persons. Thus, Maracle’s quote suggests that people should have self-regulation even in the most unrestrained times.
Reference
Maracle, L. (1993). Ravensong. Press Gang Publishers.
Encouragement Of Family Farms By Small Island Countries
Abstract
This paper makes the case that formalizing the promotion, growth, and enhancement of small-scale urban food farming is a direct and nutritionally, financially, socially, technologically, and sociably sensible way to foster food security and sustainable national development. Given the advantages it offers, urban food production should be included as a part of agricultural development programs, even though planners and politicians do not fully understand it. Urban food growing vegetables would seem to support a wide range of other environmental and societal objectives in addition to almost all of the widely held development objectives of enhanced income and industrial growth, creating jobs, income distribution of electricity, the satisfaction of basic necessities, and value creation of self-sufficiency. Home food growing has traditionally been an essential aspect of living on Pacific islands, and urban food growing is now an essential component of urban life on Pacific islands.
Introduction
In the majority of Pacific Island nations, land has been converted from sustenance to advertising culturally homogeneous agricultural use or from both subsistence purposes agriculture to urban use leading to an immediate increase in the population, rapid urbanization, commercialization, privatization, and market liberalization. It is also connected with the aggressive increase of commercial monoculture, commercial animal agriculture, and other urban-industrial operations like mineral extraction, wood milling, commercial fishing, and tourism. Urban food composting and “urbanized” small-scale or apartment yard farming in rural and peri-urban areas have gained more meaning in the field of the evolving Pacific Islands (Iese, Holland, Wairiu, Havea, Patolo, Nishi & Waqainabete, 2018). It happened due to the growth of urban centers and rising population spatial distribution, especially in low and squatter territories.
The repercussions of global warming, along with more frequent and extreme natural catastrophes like cyclones, floods, and land droughts, are particularly sensitive to countries due to their distinct geophysical elements as well as social, economic, and unique cultural aspects. Small islands are among the nations that are most susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. It is evident that there are losers and winners in terms of climate and food security, with small island nations in the Pacific that live in warmer regions, such as the tropics, poised to lose the most from global warming (Thaman, 1995). There is no doubt that climate change is occurring and that it might get worse in the future; immediate action is needed to lessen these effects.
This study examines the economic, social, and agricultural issues associated with family farming in small island countries. The study will not cover the ways of growing food as well as the standard features of the region. This document was written to analyze and explore the possibilities for small island countries to encourage family farming in order to achieve food security.
Limitations and Scoping
Peer-reviewed publications, as well as other academic research, including reports, government publications, and dissertations, are included in this scoping study. Considerations have been given to books, news stories, and editor opinion columns. Mixed techniques, qualitative, and quantitative study types are all covered. For this evaluation, only works written in English were taken into consideration. This evaluation solely takes the information on agricultural feed ingredients like vegetables and fruits into account because the emphasis is on smallholder producers and food security.
It is thought that the survey did not adequately capture the food consumed away from home in metropolitan regions, and as a result, figures in urban areas are underreported. On the other hand, it is thought that the essential food intake in rural regions was overstated. It is possible that some families recorded the amount collected rather than the amount is eaten. At the national level, it may be argued that these estimating errors, both under and over, are balanced out by the average consumption of a typical representative Samoan (Nathalie Troubat & Aliyeva, 2020). The median at the sub-regional level may, however, be overestimated or underestimated. Because of this, numbers that mention the average or proportion of the population are never presented at the sub-regional level. Various units of measurement were used to collect the food quantities, and some conversions were not accessible. Some food goods’ descriptions were not always accurately documented or tagged. The last two rounds showed a decline in records recorded in the diary, indicating the influence of enumerators’ exhaustion.
Methodology
The first attempt at data extraction utilized a prototype form that was based on Renzaho and Mellor’s four pillars of food security: food availability, access to food, household food, and asset generation. The data from the Pacific Islands, where investigations were frequently of a technical character dealing with practice and did not analytically match the categories above, did not totally suit these categories, despite the fact that they were a helpful starting point.
Findings
Regrettably, the majority of the managerial elite in the Pacific Islands presently either struggle to understand the value of urban food gardening or are determined to ignore it because it is not seen as providing the same political traction or grabbing the same consideration on a worldwide stage as more spectacular disaster response, food assistance programs, or massive development initiatives. Urban industry, tourism, and industrial agriculture development projects all lack the support of “operational entrepreneurs,” much like urban food gardening (Georgeou, Hawksley, Wali, Lountain, Rowe, West & Barratt, 2022). Finally, due to the current concentration on urban- and white-collar-based proper educational instruction, very few members of the urban elite who are considered “educated” comprehend the nature and crucial developmental value of urban food gardens. It might be claimed that if urban food gardening is not promoted with greater attention, existing trends will worsen and cause even more “food insecurity.”
House Yard Food Gardening
Urban environments in Pacific island nations frequently include food cultivation in backyards. Even in places like Kiribati and Nauru, which are not known for their agricultural diversity, urban gardens are home to a wide variety of essential root crops, supplemental food plants, tree crops, and innumerable non-food species (Thaman, 1995). The most widespread plants in terms of quantity and total area under development were historically significant root products such as taro, cassava, sweet potato, tannia, and yams, with gigantic taro and giant swamp taro being important in Tonga. It is frequently planted in humid regions such as dishwashing areas, water taps, and drains.
Urban garden systems also need a variety of plants that are utilized for livestock feed, fuel, medicines, fiber, colors, decoration, fragrances, personal care products, shade, and building materials. Given the extraordinarily high and continuously rising costs, as well as the unavailability, abuse, and dubious efficacy of certain imported drugs, medicinal plants, in particular, are a crucial economically and culturally resource (UN, 2022). In urban gardens, sacred or fragrant plants hold a significant amount of significance.
Urbanized Rural Food Gardens
As land scarcity and poor rural earnings make meeting a rural family’s fundamental requirements more challenging, urbanized home yard food gardening is becoming a more significant activity. Such gardens are essential to families that live and work in rural regions but are from other places and do not have access to large tracts of rural property (Siegner, Sowerwine & Acey, 2018). Similar to urban settings, these gardens frequently contain a large variety of primary root crops; however, supplemental non-tree and tree crops are more prevalent.
Problems
Despite the significant significance of urban food gardening in the Pacific Islands, there are also other issues. The adverse weather, poor soils, the expense and accessibility of land and water, a lack of time and work, theft, and a lack of government aid are the most frequently noted. Urban gardeners often struggle with poor, unproductive soils, including the highly underdeveloped rocky or stony lithosols. Most localities struggle with a lack of land and a lack of security of tenure; for instance, in Suva, more than half of all families cite a lack of land as an issue. Urban gardening, the establishment and preservation of trees, and other long-term crops appear to be significantly hindered by the insecurity of tenure, as many individuals have short-term contracts or are insurgents.
Discussion
Policy and Institutions
Governments might legislate urban food growing on empty and underdeveloped property in urban and rural regions, legitimizing it and encouraging it rather than discouraging it. In areas where this is a concern, legislation should be passed in addition to other efforts to determine the best ways to reduce theft from urban gardens. Planning and housing commissions should think about adding space for urban gardening in all residential development. In high-density, multi-unit building zones where residents cannot access arable land, urban agriculture or urban garden reserves might be formed. All residential and rehabilitation facilities have to incorporate garden reserve funds and hybrid urban gardening initiatives. Large organizations, governmental agencies, and even small businesses should promote tree planting in employee or industrial gardens.
The achievement of establishing food security and nutrition will be mainly determined by the creation of an enabling environment. The difficulty lies in putting into practice effective and efficient problem-solving strategies in a manner that is considered legitimate by the stakeholders in, facilitated by, or otherwise directly impacted by the decisions made by any governing structure or military dictatorship, as well as in developing and enhancing the capabilities of institutional arrangements in accordance with priorities.
Economic Issues
Small island developing governments are far from markets, which hampers export-led growth and points to the need to concentrate on prospects that are less influenced by geographic constraints. Small-scale farming relies principally on family labor. Improvements in agricultural technology and commercial agriculture have received little funding. As a result, agriculture has challenges in export markets and is comparatively less competitive than imports. The challenge is to help a significant number of semi-subsistence farmers transition to more commercially oriented output through continuous access to competitive markets in order to increase food security and enhance lives in the region.
There are several opportunities for agriculture to return to domestic markets in order to boost rural development, nutrition, and food security; urbanization is favoring this process. To satisfy the essential requirements for quality and consistency, it is necessary to identify and realize the true growing market potential in domestic markets, including tourism markets, as well as to build manufacturing, processing, and marketing abilities (Lucantoni, 2020). In this situation, intraregional markets also provide a chance since they facilitate a quicker shift to new production patterns that can boost equity.
Increasing the production of traditional staple foods, including roots and tubers, plantains, and breadfruits, has the capability to reduce food imports and promote economic growth. Research and extension efforts are made to support the value chains of traditional staple food crops in order to boost production, on-farm productivity, and processing effectiveness. Tropical fruits are another subsector, particularly in nations with a substantial tourist influx. Increased employment and earnings will improve lives and food security in the agricultural sector, as well as enhancements in marketing, processing, and support programs.
Social Issues
Agriculture needs social protection since it may ease financial restrictions and allow for changes in productive activity. Consequently, it may enable the accumulation of productive assets or assist farmers in implementing new technologies and crops. Moreover, having insurance offers homes a more robust defense against dangers and surprises (O’Hara & Toussaint, 2021). This aids smallholders in preventing distressed sales of productive assets and the early sale of agricultural products. It may also make it easier for them to diversify into other livestock, crops, or aquaculture.
These elements may result in both more dynamic and effective agriculture industry and enhanced family resilience. To optimize synergies, social protection policymakers must collaborate with those in the agricultural and natural resource sectors. This is emphasized in the report on natural resources and the environment when it comes to the preservation of essential ecosystems, such as coral reefs, which serve as safety nets in times of need.
By boosting social capital, enhancing a sense of belonging, and halting the outflow from rural places, young people maintain a sense of continuity in rural society. Young people have few options for gainful and respectable work in rural agricultural and non-farm sectors. As a result, a lot of young farmers leave farming and rural regions to go to metropolitan areas, either domestically or internationally. Improving food income and stability well-being in the medium and long term requires engaging young people in agriculture and increasing assistance for farmers.
Conclusion
The leading causes of hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition are lack of physical and financial access to the resources required to acquire enough food and consume a diet that is nutritionally appropriate. The solution to governance concerns requires a multidisciplinary, cross-cutting approach. The establishment of an enabling environment is essential, as is boosting the capabilities of the organizations in charge of disseminating data on food security and nutrition and consolidating unified information systems. The primary sector, notably agrifood value chains with recognized market opportunities, needs more public collaboration and focused investments.
Multiple-level collaborations will help create a supportive atmosphere that improves nutrition and food security. Policy, financial, and institutional structures may all be more closely aligned to produce this climate. Significant gaps in technology and capacity building must be addressed collaboratively in collaboration with international organizations. Small island governments’ primary sector businesses and producers must contend with fierce international and domestic competition. Therefore, there is a pressing need for cooperation between the public and private sectors to enable investments in higher productivity and value chain efficiency required to sustain their share of the market and food production.
Bibliography
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