Jane Eyre
Chapter 28
1) The suffering that Jane endures is compounded by her belief that she has `no claim to ask` for help. How is this philosophy in keeping with her character?
In her novel “Jane Eyre” Charlotte Bronte shows an extraordinary and isolated young woman. Throughout the writing, her embarrassment and complications in communicating represent the main anxiety of the author. Being a poor orphan from the first days of her existence, Jane Eyre felt herself lonely among other people and isolated from the society. Her extraordinary character that is distinguished first of all by the striving for independence that was very difficult to gain for Jane. Being poor, she faced the humiliating attitude of the rich; being a woman she met the opposition of men, who demonstrated their superiority that was recognized by the society. Jane was not impudent and cunning, she was too simple and her character was closed, so she recognized and accepted her position and was looking only for the honest ways to improve it. A young woman knew pretty well that her rights in this world were too limited. This is emphasized in Chapter 28 by the phrase “no claim to ask” – and it is explained by the next phrase – “no right to expect interest in my isolated lot”.
2) As the author of the text, Bronte is the artist who chooses what events happen in the plot, in the same way a painter chooses the composition of a painting. Why did she choose to create a section where her main character goes through so much pain? Is it appropriate?
The novel “Jane Eyre” is full of feelings and emotions. One can’t read it without tears for the first time. The plot blends together romantic and real events and this is the novel’s significance. The Chapter 28 was needed in order to show the full imperfection of that time society deeply and emotionally.
Chapter 29
1) Do a bit of quick Wikipedia research, Where do the names Mary, Dianna, St. John, and Hannah come from? What is the significance attached to each name? Compare the meanings of the name with their characterizations in this and the next chapter.
` St. John Rivers – After leaving Thornfield in order to hide from Rochester, Jane met a supporter in the person of St. John Rivers. Together with his sisters he saved her life and did not let her die from starvation. St. John is cold, aloof, and habitually calculating in his relations with other people. Due to his complete alienation from the feelings and concentration exclusively on the strict goal, St. John represents a character that is quite opposite to Edward Rochester. In Chapter 29 St. John is a Jane’s safer who seems to be a kind angel, however in Chapter 30 his real nature is perfectly opened before the reader.
Diana and Mary Rivers are John’s sisters who support Jane and save her life. They are good-natured and well-educated young women also working as governesses to earn their life. They are perfect examples of independent women and have a lot of in common with the main character Jane, serving for her a perfect model of the behavior. As they had more opportunities in their life than Jane, their characters are not so conflicting and they are not so closed and isolated. Diana and Mary perfectly combine the strong characters and preservation of their dignity with friendliness. In Chapter 29 they seem just two simple girls, kind and dependant. However, in Chapter 30 their strong characters are showed to the reader.
Hannah is an old woman working in River’s house for all her life. In Chapter 29 she seems an integral part of the cruel society who asks Jane to go away. However in Chapter 30 it became obvious that she is just too simple to understand Jane’s position, but kind and completely devoted to the family she serves for. Hannah is an example of a devoted servant of that time.
Chapter 30:
1) Compare the Rivers siblings to the Reed siblings. In what ways are they similar? In what ways are they foils? Do the names signify anything?
The only thing that is similar between Rivers and Reeds is that they are a brother and two sisters. These families are completely different in terms of their upbringing, values, behavior. Reeds are negative, cruel, mean and impudent, their name means “reed” – grass on the bog, while Rivers are positive, honest, kind and disinterested.
2) Reread Janes description of St. Johns sermonizing in the middle of pg. 381. What is her reaction to his tone? Recall that Helens expression of her belief in God caused similar feelings in Jane. How are Helen and St. John alike and different?
The character of St. John possesses one more significant function: he makes an attractive comparison to the understanding of religious conviction of Helen Burns, a girl met earlier in the novel. The Jane’s reaction to the religious conviction of the both characters was the same – being strong and independent she could not accept their submissive position. However their submission was quite different. Contrasting the submissive and tolerant Helen, St. John is energetic and motivated. Helen is passive and ready to accept any destiny the God prepared for her while St. John considers Jesus to be a pioneer that shows the way for him. He is not insincere like for example Mr. Brocklehurst, however he is so strictly upright and lacking in understanding that his actions is really just as disparaging.
Chapter 31
1) Enjoy a rereading of the introduction of Rosamung on pg. 393. What does her character symbolize? What is another interpretation of her name beyond what St. John notes (ie, Rose of the World)?
Rosamond Oliver: the small-minded, however very beautiful and friendly girl. In contrast to Blanch Ingram, she is beautiful, but not cruel and selfish. She gives money to organize the school for poor children from the village. The girl represents one more interesting and different character which helps to understand the similarity between St. John and Jane Eyre and the essence of St. John’s difficult nature. She also helps Jane understand at last that beauty does not mean so much and can’t bring mutual love, respect and happiness to the person. St. John calls Rosamond “Rose of the World” – she is just a flower to blossom for some time in this world and than disappear without leaving any remarkable trace.
Chapter 32
1) What do you think of St. Johns stoic reasoning behind his decision not to wed Rosamond on pg. 405?
The stoic reasoning of St. John not to marry Rosamond in Chapter 32 seems stupid to the reader at first. However, then it becomes clear that this decision was right for him. Taking his nature into account, one can’t but notice that the nature of Rosamond is quite different. They really have nothing to talk about. She would never understand his passion and her small and simple mind would irritate him all the time. The girl would really be happier with another man who would understand her better. St. John realizes this rather well and did not let himself love her in order not to spoil her life. This is one of the sacrifices the man makes for God and people.
2) On pg. 406, St. John calls himself `a cold, hard man` Do you agree? Does Jane agree? St. John calls himself cold, hard man but Jane just “smiled incredulously”. He was not really hard, but just had strong convictions and sometimes they were stronger of other wishes people usually have. The tear St. John lost after meeting Rosamond testifies that he really had rather kind and sensitive soul.
Chapter 33:
1) In this chapter, the final pieces of the puzzle slip into place. Is this resolution too coincidental or is it satisfactory?
The novel “Jane Eyre” is significant by the mix of romanticism and realism made by the author. The final resolution in Chapter 33 seems too coincidental so represents the element of romanticism rather than the events which could really happen.
2) Consider the family tree on the board. What parallels do you see amongst the families in terms of structure? How has wealth affected them?
As it was mentioned above the main parallel created by the author is the same structure of the Reed’s and River’s families – a brother and two sisters where Reeds hate each other being really spoiled by their wealth they had from their birth, and Rivers are positive, kind and intelligent plain family who received some wealth being already adult for their kindness. However, the presence or absence of money can’t build human’s character completely, it just can affect it. Here we can trace a one more element of Romanticism – the two families with the same structure but the quite opposite characters of member’s while in real life people can’t be completely good or bad. The author created such parallel in order to show the imperfection of the rich society.
Sources
Bronte, C. (1922). Jane Eyre. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
Jane Austen – Pride And Prejudice
Abstract
Jane Austen is known the world over for her novels such as Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility. She died many years ago yet she remains to be one of the most popular authors to date, and her books are still being studied in literature classes around the world. What is it about her that is so special that not only endeared her to millions of readers across the world? A glimpse into her novels would show how some of the stories resemble her life, making her literature real and relatable. In addition, Jane Austen succeeded in making her novels timeless and universal.
Jane Austen is one of the world’s best loved and most widely read authors. She had contributed to world literature with the likes of Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility. The novels were written in the 19th Century, but these literary works are still relevant at present. The novels derive their relevance from their classic quality and universal appeal. In addition, these novels show readers a glimpse of the author’s life. This research paper aims to discuss how some aspects of Jane Austen’s life were mirrored in her novels, and why today she remains as one of the world’s literary greats.
Jane Austen was born on a Saturday, December 16, 1775 (Cody, 2008; Le Faye, 2003). Her parents were Reverend George Austen and Cassandra Leigh; the former was the rector of Steventon since 1761, while the latter was a daughter of the rector of Harpsden (Le Faye, 2003). Jane was seventh in the family of eight children, and grew up in Steventon in Hampshire (Cody; 2008). The situation of her family life would eventually be reflected in her writings; just like the characters in some of her works, the large Austen family was reputable yet lacking in wealth. Reverend Austen had to stretch his rector’s salary through farming to support his family. He also entertained students in the Austen household for additional income (Le Faye, 2003). The family spent most of their time reading novels or playing charades (Cody; 2008). In the family, Jane was closest to her elder sister Cassandra (Cody; 2008).
Jane’s life had given her enough material to write about in her literary career. During the 1780s, the Austen children had amateur theater to preoccupy them at home (Le Faye, 2003). James led his siblings in this endeavor, due to his literary leanings. He had written most of the plays they performed, and even managed the creation of the props to be used. The performances would be held either in a barn or the dining room in the rectory. These same theatrical displays from Jane’s family life would inspire those in Mansfield Park. From 1785 to 1786, both Jane and Cassandra attended Mrs. La Tournelle’s Ladies’ Boarding School, which was located in Abbey House found in Reading, Berkshire. The school served as a temporary yet cozy home for the Austen girls. Unfortunately, Mr. Austen could no longer afford to send his daughters to an institution which charged £35 per student annually. Though she stayed in the school at Abbey House for only a year, her experience provided helpful information in her writing of Emma (Le Faye, 2003).
It was not until after Jane returned home from school that she began to write (Le Faye, 2003). For the first six years since she started writing, Jane produced essays which were comedic in nature. She also created short stories and skits. Her works varied in length; several pieces were only a page long, while others were longer and were not completed. These stories were eventually written in three books that Jane named Volumes the First, Second and Third. The entire collection was later called Juvenilia; this collection was published posthumously, apart from the novels she has written as an adult (Le Faye, 2003).
By the 1790s, Jane’s literary direction had changed. She continued to write for herself, because she had no plans of having her compositions published (Le Faye, 2003). However, she shared her stories with her family when she read to them by the fireplace at night. The shift in Jane’s literary direction was evident in the maturity of her themes. After completing the comic manuscripts of Volumes the First, Second and Third, Jane began to write novels with adult subject matter. These novels were usually written in the form of letters. The first novel she tried to write was about an insensitive and opportunist widow who derived joy from destroying families through lying and flirting. The villainess also attempted to coerce her young daughter to marry a man she did not love. While Jane left this novel initially untitled, it was known as Lady Susan, which is the name of the female antagonist. It was said that Jane completed Lady Susan from 1793 to 1794. A year later, she tried to write her first full-length novel in the same format of letters. This time, the story was about two sisters entitled Elinor and Marianne. Immediately after this project, Jane proceeded to write First Impressions in 1796; this was the original manuscript of Pride and Prejudice (Le Faye, 2003).
Reverend Austen was so impressed by his daughter’s work that he sought to have the novel published (Le Faye, 2003). After Jane completed First Impressions, he wrote to a publisher in London named Cadell and offered him a copy of the novel. Cadell did not bother to see the copy; he immediately rejected it. Despite this unfortunate development, Jane was unaffected and continued to write. She resumed working on Elinor and Marianne, making it into what is presently identified as Sense and Sensibility (Le Faye, 2003).
The year 1801 marked the Reverend Austen’s unexpected retirement (Le Faye, 2003). The family was forced to transfer from Steventon to Bath, where Jane’s mother and maternal grandmother previously lived (BBC, 2009; Cody, 2008; Le Faye, 2003). The Austens had to sell most of their property for this move (Davidson, 2004). It was believed that Jane had strongly disapproved of her parent’s decision to leave Steventon (Le Faye, 2003). At that point, most of the Austen children have started their own familes; only Jane and Cassandra remained single, and stayed with their parents (Cody, 2008; Le Faye, 2003). The family’s decision to move was said to have been motivated by two reasons. First, Mr. and Mrs. Austen were old and sickly; it was suggested that Bath would help them recover from their failing health (Le Faye, 2003). Second, it was also insinuated that the move to the city was made to improve the chances for both women to find husbands (Cody, 2008; Le Faye, 2003). Though Jane was never married, it must be noted that she did dance and flirt with potential suitors. She flirted with Tom Lefroy, who left for London before the relationship could progress (Le Faye, 2003). Four years after settling in Bath, Revered Austen passed away and the Austen women had to relocate once again (Cody, 2008). They initially moved to Southampton in 1805; four years later, they were permanently settled in Chawton due to the assistance of Jane’s rich brother Edward (BBC, 2009; Cody, 2008).
Due to missing information between July 1809 and April 1811, it was uncertain if and when Jane’s family tried to again encourage her to submit her works for publication (Le Faye, 2003). She tried to regain her copy of Lady Susan from Benjamin Crosby & Co. but the company asked her to buy it from them for ten pounds, a price she found to be too expensive. Jane submitted Sense and Sensibility to another publisher in 1810, this time to Thomas Egerton. While he agreed to publish the novel, he sought to do it at the expense of Jane. She reluctantly accepted this deal and had to save a percentage of her measly salary to cover the loss (Le Faye, 2003).
Sense and Sensibility was released in 1811 and became sold out in 1813 (Le Faye, 2003). Meanwhile, Jane went back to edit and alter First Impressions; she then changed the title to Pride and Prejudice. Egerton published the text in 1813, which proved to be successful like the first one. Despite her literary success, Jane was not mentioned in the books as the author. This was because during Jane’s time, a woman’s reputation would be tarnished if she was involved in literature and publication. Though she remained anonymous, she continued to write two more novels. She started on Mansfield Park in 1812 and Egerton published it two years later. Just like her first two novels, Jane’s third work was well received by the reading public. A year later, she began her work on Emma and completed the novel by 1815. Henry, Jane’s brother, was often in charge of dealing with the publishers. For the publication of Emma, he sent the novel to John Murray of Albemarle Street (Le Faye, 2003).
Jane continued with yet another novel entitled Persuasion, which was to be her last novel (Davidson, 2004). Unfortunately, Henry became sick while she was in the process of writing. Jane went to London to attend to her brother’s condition; soon, she began being ill herself. It was in 1816 when Jane started to experience the symptoms of the disease which would later claim her life (Le Faye, 2003). It was said that Jane suffered from the failure of the kidney that resulted from the infection of the tubercle; it was referred to as Addison’s disease. Due to her condition, she began having difficulty in writing; she had to struggle to finish the last two chapters of Persuasion (Le Faye, 2003).
In an effort to improve Jane’s condition, Cassandra brought her sister to Winchester in May 1817 to bring her closer to her doctor (Davidson, 2004; Le Faye, 2003). Dr. Lyford was a surgeon at the city’s County Hospital, but even he could not help save Jane’s life. Jane passed away on July 18, 1817, and her remains were buried in Winchester Cathedral. It was Henry who had Jane’s unpublished works released after her death (Le Faye, 2003).
Why is Jane Austen a great author? How does she remain a significant writer many years after her death? One reason could be the fact that she was part of a literary revolution during her time. According to Fergus (1997), Austen became an author in a time when women were not allowed to be writers. She was one of the women authors who succeeded in having their novels published despite the social obstructions (Fergus, 1997). In Austen’s time, women were restricted in the domestic sphere; they were supposed to be private individuals. For a woman to break into the public sphere through publication would be detrimental to her reputation. Fathers would often take control of their daughter’s life and discourage them from publishing, as it may greatly affect their chances of getting married. However, Austen stood out as one of the women who took a chance in such a risky endeavor. In contrast to other women, Jane was lucky to have a father who supported her interest in writing and even exerted effort to have her novels published. Jane was a writer who held her own place in the literary world despite social setbacks.
Another reason why Jane Austen is considered a great and timeless writer is because her works mirror real life. Her novels reveal the plight of women during the 1800s, while describing the social situation of England during her time (BBC, 2009). According to Waldron (2001), Jane did not utilize the elements of fiction to obstruct the relationship between the text and its reader. Though she created fiction, she did not create illusions for her readers (Waldron, 2001). She wrote about the realities in 19th Century English society. After all, her own life in English society was partly revealed in her novels. The real nature of her novels allowed more readers to relate to her, giving her the guarantee that her works would stand the test of time.
Lastly, the reason why Jane Austen remains significant in this day and age is because her works are timeless and universal. According to Todd (2006), “no reader and no period exhausts her books” (p. 1). All of her works must be read over and over again, as every reading teaches something new (Todd, 2006). Austen is often compared with William Shakespeare, and such analogy seems appropriate. After all, the English authors were both critically acclaimed and widely popular. The novels of Austen, just like Shakespeare, were crucial inclusions in the study of literature without losing its mass appeal. Hence, Jane Austen is a remarkable author because her novels stand both the tests of time and criticisms and continue to be studied throughout the world by various generations.
Jane Austen had lived a colorful life. She belonged to a large family who encouraged her to pursue what she loved most—writing. She broke boundaries by publishing her novels despite the social implication it had on her standing as a woman. In her career as a novelist, she created literary classics such as Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility. She proved to be very significant in literature for three primary reasons. First, she helped cement a place for women in the publishing realm which was once dominated by men. Second, her works were a reflection of real life, as she captured the 19th Century English social climate in the pages of her books. Some events in her stories were even derived from her own life. Third, she proved to be an author whose works proved to be both timeless and universal. Indeed, Jane Austen was one of the best and most relevant contributors in world literature.
References
BBC. (2009). Jane Austen (1775-1817). BBC: Historic Figures. Retrieved February 26, 2009, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/austen_jane.shtml
Cody, D. (2008). A brief biography of Jane Austen. The Victorian Web. Retrieved February 26, 2009, from http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/austen/bio.html
Davidson, K. (2004). Introduction: the life and work of Jane Austen. In J. Austen, Pride and Prejudice (VIII-IX). New York: Pocket Books.
Fergus, J. (1997). The professional woman writer. In E. Copeland & J. McMaster (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen (pp. 12-31). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Le Faye, D. (2003). Jane Austen: The World of Her Novels. London: Frances Lincoln Ltd.
Todd, J. (2006). The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Waldron, M. (2001). Jane Austen and the Fiction of her Time. New York: Cambridge University Press.
The Rise Of Japanese Militarism
Part one
The rise of Japanese militarism
The Japanese militarism was a movement spurred by the ideology that was wide spread in the empire of Japan stating that dominance of the social and political life of the nation should be left to the militarism, and the strength of the nation should be equal to the strength of the military. This ideology made the military to have significance influence on the society of Japan, uniting all leaders from business, politics or military wings during the Meiji period. Being descendants of samurai, the society shared common set of outlooks and values. In early ages of nineteenth century, Meiji government perceived that western imperialism was threatening the governance and operation of the nation, through weakening their efforts to construct firm industrial and economic foundations (Junji, 1997, p.10).
This perception further initiated the need to build up a strong military base to protect Japan from the outside powers influence or governance. The development of strong military base was also necessitated by domestic issues such as internal revolts including the numerous rural; peasant uprisings, rebellions and the saga rebellion.
When the universal military was set up, it was enabled to indoctrinate men from diverse social setups holding values of military patriotism. The basis for Japan state then became unquestionable loyalty to the Emperor. After considering states that had transformed from agricultural state to states of great military and industrial power, Yamagata adopted the Prussia model. He therefore accepted the political provisions of Prussia, favoring authoritarian government at home and military expansion abroad. The military could be seen as a state within a state, influencing political matters in general because the model devalued civilian control over the independent military (Lippit, 2002, p.16).
As strategies to reform the army, its command structure was reorganized into regiments and divisions, strengthening transport structures, army logistics and increased military mobility. As independent commands, engineering regiments and artillery were connected by railways which enabled universal conscription system to abolish all virtual exceptions. Following these tends in military framework of Japan, its imperialism and militarism grew due to the following principal reasons. The reasons differed in the functions they were attached to since each was being applied at a specified time period. Japan desired to be a western style imperialist power, was concerned by its safety and security, believed in its leadership role in Asia, was concerned by frequent provocations by western powers and it also desired to secure its economic interests. These factors expended militarism and imperialism base of Japan from 1905 to 1940s (Lippit, 2002, p.16).
Japan aggression towards foreign nations was highly motivated by the western imperialism. Japan consistently followed great examples of western imperialist nations in several occasions. In some cases, Japan defended itself against western powers, counteracted their ideologies and sometimes conformed to them. The attitude of western nations towards Japan was provocative and stubborn, providing good environment for Japan to advance in imperialism and militarism. These events of military race ultimately led to Second World War.
According to the way Japan reacted towards the west, it really aspired for imperialism of the western style. This was indicated by the way Meiji leaders wanted to drive Japan to a first rate nation with the power and prestige bestowed on foreign territorial possessions. During the nineteenth century, military means were used to make overseas territorial acquisitions by western powers such as Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, America, Britain, Russia and France. Western imperialism began in the 16th century and had a history of making forced acquisitions in other nations. After admiring this, Japanese Meiji oligarchs joined these powers in demanding privileges and rights in the other Asian nations (Meacham, 2003, p.34).
However before the country attempted to assert the demands to western powers, it realized that it had to strengthen and modernize its military force. Japan concentrated in expanding military base for several years only to realize by 1910 that it had no reached the level of imperialist western powers. This was realized during the Sino Japanese war in which Japan acquired Formosa and made china pay large indemnity. However, it could not tolerate the situation when France, Germany and Russia forced Japan to surrender Liaotung Peninsula which it captured during the war. This made Japan allocate an increased expenditure to military operations and upgrading from 1900 to 1910 (Junji, 1997, p.11).
Additionally, intensification of Japanese militaristic attitude was geared by the recognition by the government that there was the need for defense against Russia and other western powers. Japan feared any invention by these nations especially Russia because of their naval power, superior military and advanced technological achievements. By then, china was very weak in military and economically. Japan feared that the rivalry of the western nations towards china may collapse it and consequently breach the security of Japan. The feeling that Japan needed expansion more for security reasons rather than for conquest reasons was an end in itself. Militarism expansion was therefore recommended not only for advantage lines but also for lines of sovereignty. This meant that the country had to extend its control and influence beyond national boundaries to ensure assured security (Meacham, 2003, p.35).
The control over Korea served as Japanese protection against western countries. This was because Korea bordered Russia and china, with Korea and Japan having geographical propinquity. To ensure defense coverage from Korea, Japan realized it required control over Liaotung Peninsula. Japan won the war but the Triple Convention forced Japan to drop it, with Russia moving at the tip of the peninsula, increasing sense of insecurity of Japan. These tensions led to Russo Japanese war in 1910 to 1915. to survive through this subjection into insecure environment, Japan had to put in place alert and potential military to react against any threats from Russia (Lippit, 2002, p.14).
The other factor that motivated Japan to firmly establish and support bold military system was the belief that it had to play a leading role to the other Asian nations. In the late 19th century, leader from Japan agreed that their nation possessed manifest destiny. This was after seeing they had the ability to free Asian nations against imperialist powers of the west and lead them to collective prosperity and strength. Throughout the Asian world, social Darwinism and foreign expansion were highly supported because of promoting strongest cultures survival in natural selection process. In 1905, the belief of Japan to lead was bolstered by becoming the first Asian nation to defeat western imperialist. This took place when Japan defeated Russia in Russo Japanese war of 1914 to 1915. This served as a clear demonstration that Asian nations had the power to stand against the dictation of western imperialists. Ultranationalists gave widespread views that Japan could responsibly expel foreign powers through righteous war where applicable. The moral purity of race and unique ancestry was believed to entitle such leadership role in Asia to Japan. This desire to lead Asian world required high military base and forced Japan to heavily make such investments (Junji, 1997, p.12).
Another major reason as to why Japan intensified military equipment was because of the provocations by the western powers. Series of provocations, insults and coercive acts to Japan from 1898 to 1930s festered great anger among Japanese people. After Japan was forced to sign unequal treaties with America, Russia, Holland and France restricted Japanese national sovereignty. Through extraterritoriality, foreigners in Japan were immune to Japanese legal system jurisdiction. Japan was also forced by 1921-1922 Washington conference naval treaties to battleship ration of 5:5:3 for America, Britain and Japan respectively, a condition that was too unfavorable to Japan. The same country was coerced to the same ration for its heavy cruisers by western imperialists at London Naval Conference of 1930. Several severe insulting incidents affected Japanese population through strong social prejudice from the west, without sparing china and other Asian nations (Lippit, 2002, p.16).
In 1919 Paris Peace Conference, Japanese request for racial equality clause inclusion in the League of Nations Covenant was rejected by the Western countries. To follow suit, California passed anti Japanese legislation in 1905. In 1906, Asian and Japanese children in San Francisco school were ordered by the school board to attend segregated schools. To shut off Japanese immigration into US, America passed Japanese Exculsion Act in 1924. The imperialist and militaristic sentiments of ultranationalists and Japanese government were fueled by these series of international affronts to its status and pride.
Japan was also ignited towards militarism expansion by economic interests and forces. The nation heavily depended on foreign trade and was badly hit by the world depression that began in 1929, exposing Japanese people to economic hardships. The depression came at heels of 1923s earthquake devastation and 1920s economic stagnation, hurting small shops’ workers and farmers. To ensure continued foreign trade, economic motives for japans imperialism grew strongly in the decade of 1930. Strong export market for Japanese goods and textiles was a requirement for economic growth to be realized. China being an Asian country provided the best market opportunities for the exports of Japan. This was the reason as to why Japanese government had to take all initiative of minimizing any possible interruptions of the trade by obtaining transportation and commercial rights in china (Dower, 1986, p.12).
To supply its manufacturing industries, japans economy required raw materials imports from china. This linkage called for close and uninterrupted relationship between these two nations. The need for raw materials to support heavy industries and japans overpopulation problems were solved by Manchuria abundance in natural resources such as coal and iron and extensive land area. These industries revolved around one objective of military equipment buildup. In 1931, Japan seized Manchuria. To maintain its self sufficiency which could only be achieved through ensuring sufficient resources, Japan moved into other south Asian countries. As an example, the nation went to Dutch East Indies because it required oil to keep the military and industries supplied. The above reasons which made Japan as a nation to have a firmly established military base. The construction of the base was carried out up to early 1940s (Meacham, 2003, p.35).
Part two
OPERATION SEALION
This is the code name for the military operation Hitler planned against Britain in 1940. Theoretically, the attack seemed simple for a number of reasons. First, the German military had succeeded in the war on Poland. Secondly, the British army had lost a lot of military equipment on the beaches of Dunkirk in 1940. Consequently, the British Royal Air Force and the Navy were weak, with only the Army being able to offer Britain some protection (Junji, 1997, p.12).
On May 21st 1940, Admiral Raeder informed Hitler of a plan to attack Britain and Hitler was interested in the idea. Military conquest would be fast and decisive as, compared to the long time economic war he had thought of, and hence this appealed to Hitler. By the end of June 1940, Hitler ordered his military to put in place plans to invade Britain. The military had anticipated war with Britain and had already researched and reported on a possible invasion of Britain. The German Navy had, in November 1939, pointed out that many problems would be encountered and advised on caution should such a plan be implemented. The Army had in December 1939 hinted that such an invasion needed the support of the Navy. Since the Navy would be busy fielding off the British Navy as well as protecting German landing Army fleets, this was seen as a task that would be impossible to successfully accomplish. The Air Force had argued that good weather, which was not guaranteed across the North Sea, was required. In addition it was noted that though the German Air Force had triumphed, the Royal Air Force had not employed its full capacity in 1940 (Junji, 1997, p.10).
Hitler was prepared to offer Britain generous peace terms provided Germany’s domination on mainland Europe was respected. When it became clear that Britain would not sign a peace pact with Germany, Hitler gave the first order on a possible invasion of Britain on July 2nd 1940. The German army chiefs tabled their plan, on July 13th 1940, in whose success they were so confident that they envisaged an occupation of Britain within a month. A directive ‘Preparation for a landing operation against England’ code named “Sea Lion” was issued on July 16th.
Hitler expressed his reservations in a meeting with service chiefs on July 21st 1940. He however explained that he needed to go on with the plan so as to shift attention to Russia. Hitler wanted Sea Lion to be over by mid-September although his naval officers were of the view that Sea Lion could only start after mid-September. Hitler declared that as long as the Air force had control over the air space, Sea Lion would start on September 15th 1940. The success of the operation depended on whether the German Air Force triumphed over the Royal Air Force. Cancellation of Sea Lion was announced on September 17th 1940 owing to the failure of the German Air Force to defeat the Royal Air Force (Dower, 1986, p.14).
TEHRAN CONFERENCE 1943
This was a meeting involving Joseph Stalin (General Secretary of the Russian Communist Party), Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States President) and Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) in Tehran, Iran, between November 28th and December 1st 1943. It was the First World War II conference involving the United States, the Soviet Union and Russia attended by Stalin. A number of important historical resolutions were arrived at during the conference including the following.
It was agreed that the Yugoslavia partisans would be offered maximum equipment and commando support by the United States and the United Kingdom. The Soviet Union promised to support Turkey, a common ally, at war. Operation Overlord against France was to be launched in May 1944. Soviet forces would also conduct an offensive at the same time to prevent German forces from transferring from the Eastern to Western Front. It was concluded that it would be good if Turkey joined the Allies in the war by the end of 1943.The Three Powers agreed to have their military staff in close contact from then onwards regarding operations in Europe. A cover plan to mislead the enemy was to be hatched among the staff (Lippit, 2002, p.16).
The Soviet Union agreed to war against Japan once Germany was toppled. The United States gave in to USSR’s claim to Kurile Islands and the southern half of Sakhalin and access to the ports of Darien and Arthur situated on the Liaodong peninsula in northern China. The formation of a United Nations Organization to promote international peace and security was discussed. The US and Britain promised Stalin to send back-up troops to Western Europe by the spring of 1944.The Poland – USSR border was determined to be along the Oder and Neisse rivers and the Curzon line- set in 1920 by Lord Curzon. This effectively added an eastern part of Poland to the USSR and also lengthened the border at some other Stalin was allowed leeway in his country as well as powers to establish puppet communist governments in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Baltic states, Romania and other European countries. This resulted to loss of freedom by the concerned countries and the commencement of Cold War for the next fifty years. A plan of a concerted joint operation from the east, south and west to exterminate the German forces was arrived at. Stalin promised that the republics of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania would only be incorporated into the USSR after they voted in a referendum (Meacham, 2003, p.34).
GREATER EAST ASIA CO-PROSPERITY SPHERE
This concept was propagated by the government and the military of the Japanese Empire during the Showa era (1926-1989). The object was the creation of a self-sufficient Japan-led bloc of East Asia nations (Japan, China, Manchukuo and South East Asia) devoid of western domination. The countries would share peace, isolate Australia and perform naval operations in the Indian Ocean. One objective was the extending of Japanese power and building of an empire based on European models. One major impact of this concept was increased aggression Japanese in East Asia from 1930s to the end of World War II and justification thereof. Japan operated puppet governments in occupied countries which manipulated the populace on its behalf. The negativity associated with the Greater East Asia doctrine poses difficulties for the realization of a stronger more united East Asia Community discussed at the annual East Asia Summits (Lippit, 2002, p.15).
The concept helped to instill an anti-western theme in Asia. This was due to the use of phrases like “Asia for Asians”. The high sounding propaganda made the Japanese unpopular among the Asian countries over time. The disdain and high-handedness that the Japanese depicted further unpopularised them among the local population. The Japanese forcefully obtained labor from the local populations among other atrocities. The need to create a new order in East Asia prompted Japan to wage war against western colonialists. The new order so envisaged would then pave way for the realization of the Greater East Asia Co- prosperity Sphere (Dower, 1986, p.13).
IMPERIAL WAY FACTION
This was a military right wing nationalist Japanese political group in the 1920s and 1930s aiming to control the civil government. It upheld the ideals of militarism, expansion and totalitarianism and was composed of junior officers.
The movement advocated for a return to a pre-western, pre-industrial Japan in which corrupt bureaucrats, opportunistic politicians and greedy capitalists were non-existent. The proponents favored spiritual training of the army and a return to the traditional Japanese ways of life.
The toseiha group was formed in response to the teachings of the Imperial Way faction. Strong skepticism of representative democracy and political party politics were evident in this group’s ideology. This would in future form a firm basis form Japan’s choice of imperial as opposed to democratic leadership.
The power tussles between the imperial way group and its opponent – the toseiha culminated in a failed coup de tat backed by the Imperial Way group- the kodoha in February 26th 1936. The Imperial Way’s group doctrines of spiritual power, imperial mysticism and insubordination of junior officers became deeply embedded in the military even after the demise of the groups after February 1936 (Junji, 1997, p.11).
YALTA CONFERENCE
This was a conference that took place in a Russia resort town on February 4-11 in 1945 in Crimea, during the Second World War. At this place, soviet premier Joseph Stanlin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the US president Franklin Delano Roosevelt made significant decisions regarding the future progress of the second world war and the post world war. Before they met, they believed in an inevitable practicability of an Allied victory in Europe, however less convinced that the end of the pacific war was nearing. Great Britain and the United States tirelessly fought to have the participation of the Soviet Union in the pacific theatre against Japan because it required protracted fight. There were therefore discussing the conditions under which Soviet Union was to join the war against Japan (Dower, 1986, p.12).
The three agreed that, if the union participates crucially in the theatre, it will be granted influence sphere in Manchuria if Japan happened to surrender. In the same they discussed the future of Germany, United Nations and Eastern Europe. France was included in postwar governance of Germany as Germany assumed little operations. Eastern Europe nations that bordered Soviet Union were to be friendly to the union, as the union pledged to hold free elections in all territories liberated from Nazi Germany.
Concerning the United Nations, they agreed to vote in the procedures of the Security Council that favored those permanent members. The other conditions which the union demanded and was agreed upon included preservation of the status quo in Mongolian People’s Republic, restoring former rights which were violated in Russia by treacherous attach by Japan. Commercial p[ort of Darien was to be internationalized with total safeguarding of pre eminent interests of the USSR in the port and Port Arthur be leased as naval base for USSR be formalized. The Kurile Islands were also to be handed over to USSR. The three agreed that these claims were to be unquestionably fulfilled if Japan happened to be defeated (Lippit, 2002, p.14).
References:
- Dower, J. (1986) War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. Pantheon Books. New York, p.12, 13, 14.
- Junji Banno (1997). The political economy of Japanese society: The state of the market. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.10, 11, 12.
- Lippit Seiji (2002). Topographies of Japanese modernism. Columbia University Press, Columbia, p.14, 15, 16.
- Meacham John; (2003). An Intimate Portrait of an Epic Friendship: Random House Inc. New York, p.34, 35.