Introduction
Racial issues have always been a complicated problem to touch upon. People are intrinsically predisposed to having issues with accepting different views and concepts, as well as people who look or behave differently; hence the phenomenon of racism emerges.
Numerous cases on racism provide a lot of food for thoughts. Some of them are well ahead of their time, like the fictional story of Pudd’nhead Wilson created by Mark Twain; others set the history several decades back, like the notorious case of Plessy v. Ferguson, which resulted in setting the American and the African American population even further apart from each other.
Despite the fact that there is little similarity between such texts as Pudd’nhead Wilson by Mark Twain and the Plessy v. Ferguson legal case, both address the issue of racism, even though the conclusions that each ext makes are, in fact, diametrically opposite.
Due to the sheer complexity of its plot, the novel Pudd’nhead Wilson by Mark Twain is now often being referred, as such that represents a somewhat undermined literary value. Nevertheless, in light of what accounts for the discursive implications of the recent discoveries in the field of genetics, this particular novel cannot be referred to like anything by intellectually enlightening. This, of course, provides us with the additional rationale to reassess the true significance of the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson legal case, as such that implies that, even though the practice of a racial stereotipyzation does stand in a striking opposition to the discourse of political correctness, it nevertheless is scientifically valid to an extent.
Discussion
Nowadays, it became a commonplace practice among many Americans to bash the legal case Plessy v. Ferguson, as having been strongly racist and as such that violated the basic provisions of the American Constitution – specifically, the Constitution’s Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments. After all, the court’s ruling, in respect to this case, which found the application of the race-segregation by-law in Louisiana legally appropriate, does appear to contradict these Amendments’ insistence that, in the eyes of law, American citizens are equal – regardless of what the color of their skin is.
However, as it was pointed out by the court, even though the principle of people’s equality does serve as a legal foundation, upon which the American society is based, it does not imply the absence of the visually/behaviorally observed differences between white and colored citizens, therefore, stating that the given case “does not conflict with the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, is too clear for argument” (Plessy v. Ferguson para. 26).
Therefore, it remained well within the legal prerogative of the de jure independent state of Louisiana to define the manner, in which the recognition of these differences was taken into consideration by state legislators, who in turn strived to ensure that the state jurisdiction’s subjects to adhere to the ideals of an interracial tolerance. After all, without taking these ideals close to their hearts, citizens will not be able to relate to the constitutionally upheld principle of people’s legal equality, in the first place.
Apparently, the Louisiana’s legislators had a good reason to believe that it is namely by being provided with the opportunity to lead ‘equal but separate’ existence that the state’s racially dissimilar citizens would be able to treat each other with respect, seeing how it was ruled out in the Plessy v. Ferguson case that “the enforced separation of the races, as applied to the internal commerce of the State, neither abridges the privileges or immunities of the colored man, deprives him of his property without due process of law, nor denies him the equal protection of the laws, within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment” (Plessy v. Ferguson para. 39). Hence, the discursive significance of the court’s reference to ‘tradition’, as a semi-legal ground, out of which law originates:
So far, then, as a conflict with the Fourteenth Amendment is concerned, the case reduces itself to the question whether the statute of Louisiana is a reasonable regulation… In determining the question of reasonableness it is at liberty to act with reference to the established usages, customs, and traditions of the people. (Plessy v. Ferguson para. 45)
Due to Louisiana’s history, as probably the first truly multicultural state in the US, there can be very little doubt that the regulation in question was indeed reasonable, because it reflected the state-legislators’ understanding of the fact that people’s legal equality does not imply their existential ‘sameness’ – especially if they happened to be the representatives of different races.
Apparently, the judges did anticipate that the citizens’ enforced ‘equalization’ would prove counter-beneficial in the long run – something that we have learned only recently, due to the utter fiasco of ‘multiculturalism’ in the modern day America. Thus, the outcome of the Plessy v. Ferguson case can be referred to as such that reflected the court’s awareness of the fact that the way, in which people address life-challenges, is being strongly affected by the specifics of their racial affiliation.
Therefore, it is indeed appropriate to draw discursive parallels between this specific case and the novel Pudd’nhead Wilson. The rationale behind this suggestion is quite apparent – just as it happened to be the case with judges that had dealt with the Plessy v. Ferguson case, in his novel Twain proved himself an individual who knew that the behavior of a particular person cannot be discussed outside of what are the qualitative characteristics of his or her ‘blood’:
Wilson said to himself, “The drop of black blood in her is superstitious; she thinks there’s some devilry, some witch business about my glass mystery somewhere; she used to come here with an old horseshoe in her hand; it could have been an accident, but I doubt it.” (Twain 30)
The validity of the suggestion can be illustrated, in regards to how the author describes the behavioral leanings of the characters of Tom and Chambers. Although, during the course of their infancy, both of these characters were visually identical (which allowed Roxana to replace them with one another, without having this replacement noticed), ever since their early years, they began to exhibit diametrically opposite behavioral traits.
For example, even though that, while growing up in Judge Driscoll’s household, ‘Tom’ (Chambers) never experienced any material hardships, which could have turned him into a ‘bitter’ individual, he nevertheless ended up becoming nothing less than the embodiment of wickedness, in the literal sense of this word. It is needless to mention, of course, that the author’s portrayal of ‘Tom’ (Chambers), exposes the fallaciousness of the ‘politically correct’ psychological theories, which are based upon the assumption that the qualitative aspects of one’s behavior are environmentally rather than genetically predetermined.
The same can be said about the author’s portrayal of ‘Chambers’ (Tom), as a thoroughly good-natured and kind person, who due to his status of a slave never ceased being abused physically and psychologically: “Tom got all the petting, Chambers got none. Tom got all the delicacies, Chambers got mush and milk, and clabber without sugar… In babyhood, Tom cuffed and banged and scratched Chambers unrebuked” (22). This, however, did not have any effect on this character’s ability to lead a morally decent lifestyle – quite contrary to how the environmentalist behavioral theories would have predicted it.
Evidently enough, a striking dichotomy between how ‘Chambers’ (Tom) and ‘Tom’ (Chambers) used to position themselves in life did not reflect the specifics of these characters’ upbringing. Apparently, there was something else, rather deeply hidden, which caused both characters to act in the way they did. In one of her conversations with her son, Roxana reveals the actual cause of ‘Tom’s’ evilness with perfect clarity: “It’s de nigger in you, that’s what it is. Thirty-one parts o’ you is white, en only one part nigger, en date to’ little one part is yo’ soul” (83). It is rather ironic that despite lacking a basic education, Roxana was nevertheless well aware of what accounts for the psychological effects of the practice of crossbreeding and also the fact these effects reflect the objective laws of nature, to which the representatives of Homo Sapiens species are being subjected as much, as plants and animals are.
For example, it does not represent any secret to dog breeders that the most vicious dogs (such as pit bulls), known for their tendency to attack small children, are always the ones that have been affected by crossbreeding the most (Cohen and Richardson 302).
The fact that racial hybrids tend to act viciously and unpredictably, is also well known in American jails, which explains why Hispanics are being equally disliked by both: ‘pure blooded’ White and Black inmates and assault the latter two on a regular basis, both in and outside of prison: “The Mexican Mafia assault Hispanic drug dealers from Northern California if they enter Los Angeles County jails, and they seek out and attack black drug dealing gangs” (Skarbek 710). The idea of race as the factor that matters once again substantiates the validity of the initial thesis that discursively speaking, there is indeed much in common between the legal case and the novel in question.
At the same time, however, there is a certain inconsistency between the two, with respect to how they address the issue of race. This inconsistency is being concerned with the fact that; whereas, the outcome of the Plessy v. Ferguson case reflected judges’ tendency to think of one’s racial affiliation in terms of the concerned individual’s skin-color alone, the race-related themes and motifs, contained in Pudd’nhead Wilson, appear to extrapolate Twain’s subliminal awareness that the term race refers to the state of one’s mind, rather than to his or her skin-color alone. Therefore, there can only be a few doubts that, when compared with the case Plessy v. Ferguson, the novel Pudd’nhead Wilson is much more progressive. After all, the race-related ideas, explored in it, do resonate with what contemporary geneticists know about the effects of an individual’s racial self-identity on the manner in which he or she positions itself in life (Rindermann, Woodley and Stratford 368).
Conclusion
As it was shown earlier, even though there is indeed much of controversy to the case Plessy v. Ferguson and to the novel Pudd’nhead Wilson, there can be no doubt that, while exposed to them, readers should be able to expand their intellectual horizons rather substantially. This simply could not be otherwise, because even though they are concerned with rather unrelated subject matters, both of these pieces do contain a number of legally/scientifically sound insights, in regards to the issue of race. I believe this conclusion is fully consistent with the paper’s initial thesis.
Works Cited
Cohen, Judy and John Richardson. “Pit Bull Panic.” Journal of Popular Culture 36.2 (2002): 285-317. Print.
Plessy v. Ferguson 1896. Web.
Rindermann, Heiner; Michael Woodley and James Stratford. “Haplogroups as Evolutionary Markers of Cognitive Ability.” Intelligence 40.4 (2012): 362-375. Print.
Skarbek, David. “Governance and Prison Gangs.” American Political Science Review 105.4 (2011): 702-716. Print.
Twain, Mark. Pudd’nhead Wilson. Philadelphia: The Pensylvania State University, (1894) 1998. PSU’s Electronic Classics. Web.
Organizational Growth And Decision Making
Growth in terms of revenue and earnings is the priority of every investor. In most companies, rapid developments lead to decreased performance in stock (Jones 201). Growth and death are not found in every organization. However, it is important to note that stagnation does not necessarily translate to death. Growth has some limitations, especially when it is unregulated. It is important to progress slowly in order to effectively handle the change. Evolutions impact on organizational culture. To this end, it is hard to preserve the customs of a growing workforce. In the case of a declining firm, the cultural framework is likely to ‘fall’ with the organization (Jones 49). As such, the company is unable to sustain itself and its culture. A small organization experiencing fast growth may record rapid changes in its customary attributes. Increased business will lead to the recruitment of additional workers. The development translates to cultural shifts.
Organizational Decision Making
The rational model of economic decision making is based on a number of assumptions. It is viewed as a straight forward way of formulating policies. One presupposition is that decision making progresses through three stages. The three include identification of the problem and formulation of possible solutions (Jones 34). The last stage entails a comparative analysis of all alternatives and selection of the most appropriate one. The assumptions are rational in the context of a typical organization. The reason is that every solution is analyzed carefully (Jones 20).
The best approach is the one with more advantages than disadvantages. Bounded rationality affects most decisions made in a firm. It addresses the issue of limited capacity to process information on the part of the employees and the management. The concept is common in many organizations. The reason is that humans are assumed to be incapable of handling information overload. The approach is adopted in many firms since it is not possible to comprehend and analyze important data when coming up with policies. There are differences between rational and bounded decision making processes. For example, there are variations in the information used and costs incurred when using the two approaches. Bounded rationality has a number of impacts on the decisions made in a firm. For instance, the solution selected is aimed at satisfying the needs of the company (Jones 90).
The Case Study of Mattel’s Barbie
Mattel’s Managers’ Slow Reaction to Change
The managers were slow to adopt change because Barbie was still the best selling toy in the market. What they did not understand was that the world was changing very fast at the time. They feared that altering Barbie may not be acceptable to the consumers (Jones 301). They were unprepared when MGA unveiled the Bratz doll, which took over the market. Jones states that “cognition is the process of knowing through judgment and reason” (p. 301). The cognitive errors that led to poor decision making on the part of the managers include over-generalization and fortune-telling. In relation to fortune-telling, the executives thought that they could predict future outcomes. Overgeneralization made the managers believe that something good will happen in the future just because it happened once in the past.
The Battle between Mattel and MGA
A number of factors affected the decisions made by managers on both sides. Executives at Mattel believed that the idea behind the Bratz doll was stolen from them. They were convinced it was not possible to create a toy that is better than Bratz (Jones 302). As Mattel managers were busy trying to take over their rival’s product, MGA was inventing ways to protect its profits. The defensive element on the part of MGA affected the decisions made by the managers. The physical and emotional impacts of losing a significant market affected Mattel’s way of thinking. The factors impacted negatively on the company’s creativity. Competition helped MGA to think clearly. As a result, the firm emerged victorious at the end of the battle.
Works Cited
Jones, Gareth. Organizational Theory, Design, and Change. 7th ed. 2012. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall. Print.
Solutions To The Problem Of Steroids In Sports And Athletics
Abstract
The solution to steroids has no silver bullet in the modern context. A close look at the causes and developments of the problem of steroids clearly postulates that it may take a long time to completely stop using them. This paper looks at the Acts and regulations developed in the United States of America in an effort to control and stop use of steroids. Further awareness programs and education approaches that have been taken are included in this paper. The regulations of 1975 up to 2004 reveal that the problem of using steroids is deeper than just enacting tough laws and penalties. The paper considers a blend of awareness campaigns with use of laws that recognize the fundamental problem as one that is social, and touches on morality rather than looking at it from a criminal point of view. The paper justifies that including parents, the media and slowing the corporate gear as well as regulating public perception could go a long way in stopping or reducing the steroid problem. Parents are the first coaches and teachers and must act to stop future generations using steroids.
Main Body
Modern sport has come of age in respect to technology, rules, views, participation, funding and purpose. Today, the purposes of stakeholders are the most important. Athletes and sports men have grown from modest hardworking and determined individuals to greed oriented, super heroic driven athletes under the pressures of vested expectations from commercial, regional, national and international perspectives. This never ends well for those who are sponsored directly if they do not bring medals home (NIDA, para 4).
The use of steroids dates back to World War II where testosterone was used to improve the performance of weak and fatigued soldiers. During the 1956 Olympics it was used to enhance the performance of Soviet athletes who did exemplary well. Since them, many new steroids were invented to be used in sport. Dr. Zeigler, an American physician, created the anabolic form of steroids that caused the current problem in the world of sports (DEA, para 3).
The use of steroids could not emanate better than from this one clear example in the field of sport and thus it has surpassed the initial stages of trial and error to complete levels of acceptance and advertisement. Thus, there emerged a problem on how to prevent a fast spread of steroids (Goldstein, 5).
The problem of steady and popular rise of steroids was first addressed in 1975 by the International Olympic Committee in regard to competition. However, this led to an unprecedented increase in sales of steroids in the black market. The 1988 Anti Drug Act sought to clamp down on usage of steroids in sports and especially in basketball in the USA, and hence it said that to “distribute or possess anabolic steroids with the intent to distribute for any use in humans other than the treatment of disease” was illegal and led to criminal penalties. This Act spanned another sword in the United States as black market sprawled like never before.
By 1990, reports indicated that even high school teenagers had been using steroids and were highly dependent on them to improve their performance in athletics. In 1990, the Congress came up with Anabolic Steroid Enforcement Act which placed steroids on Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act providing that they cause changes in psychological as well endocrine systems (10). However, reports and media press analysis continued presenting alarming facts that the black market and illegal use of steroids were on the rise (Hart and Hart, 12).
The proponents of drug use believe that by criminalizing the use, possession and distribution of any drug expands the black market, as well as increases illegal usage. Yet this approach cannot be blamed as according to the UNODC on the international level, the slogan ‘war on drugs’ campaign has been recommending such approaches for a period of 50 years now (United Nations, pg. ). Report and critical analysis reveal that these approaches are only political in nature and the objectives have not been realized almost a hundred years now (Trace 6). The United States of America has imposed fines, criminal prosecution and penalties on those found in possession, sale, use and distribution of steroids as indicated in the 1990 Act.
The same approach was implemented by the United Nations Organization on using drugs. Accordingly, this has resulted in increase in crimes as per those regulations. The problem is further compounded by the treatment that these ‘criminals’ are subjected to after they brought under the ‘law’. Jailing and fines are full of the terse statements of these drug acts and most of the convicted persons relapse back to second time offending after the ‘stint’ in the jails and fines (Trace, 10). Sometimes, treatment is compared to infringement of human rights to the extent that it warrants action change in the process of stopping use of steroids.
The solution to steroids should be approached from a combination of strategies that aim at educating and creating awareness on the issues of steroid use. This strategy when combined with revised anti steroid policy should go an effective way to achieving a solution to stopping the use of steroids. According to National Strength and Conditioning Association report that the use of scare, didactics and force tactics helps nothing but aggravates the matter more (NSCA, 5). According to this report, education and training should be a perfect approach to discussing the problem of steroids. The solution in regard to this approach should also factor in the role of parenting in the modern society. Fairness and justice hold a supreme role in the American constitution and therefore it is clear that parents and the society at large have turned a blind eye to founding fathers vision in regard to this approach. If parents and coaches do not find the need to hammer in the concept of fair competition in their young kids and trainees then the solution to steroids stands a long way to achieve.
Enjoined in this approach, the public demand for higher glory and satisfaction from athletics and the need to see super champions should be discussed to find solutions to steroids. Today athletics and sports are not possible without modern technology and sports journalism. The sports press has created a whetting appetite for more performance and super heroes in regards to athletics. Technology in terms of play stations, computer games and corporate events has created an aura of super performance and hence exerting pressure to an average athlete. The public takes the same approach and thus an athlete feels cornered to perform to these expectations. So when the call to stop using steroids involves use of force, imprisonment and fines problem is escalated to newer levels rather acting as a solution (Barnes, 3 in NSCA, 4).
For example, the 2004 Anabolic Steroid Act passed by the then President George Bush, states emphasizes on elimination of use of steroids in athletics by citing them as dangerous. Further, the act reviews the list of schedule III drugs by including more to the original list. The objective of the Act was to amend the Controlled Substances Act by clarifying the definition of steroids and providing for research and education on activities related to steroids which was a positive move (Yealis, 123).
The Athletes Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) program has approached close to providing a solution to steroids use. In the program, the use of peer led materials and outlined program where students and athletes took the center stage identified ways against steroid use. In that program, students learnt how to come with their own campaigns against steroid and create reviews and discussions that emanate from their understanding of effects and use of steroids. Besides, the ATLAS program incorporates an environment where curiosity is satisfied by well designed information that is accurate and tested hence producing young people and athletes who are better informed. Jointly with NSCA, the awareness campaign and education efforts target strengthening conditions as well as nutrition and most importantly modifying these lessons in regard to basic composition of audience (NCSA, pg 6).
This program is well intended and looks on the right path to stopping steroids only, but parents and the media should also be included. The best approach to stopping use of steroids is ensuring that the future generation is well equipped and has the right information on steroids use. These are parents who should teach their children on the very best practices and morals in regard to fair play and thus including the parents in the education and awareness programs, like ATLAS or one between NSCA and EAS could go a long way. The media is responsible for daily opinions and plays a great part in the steroids campaign. By being actively incorporated in the education and awareness campaigns, the media should help in dispatching the right information to the world and targeting the appropriate audience correctly.
If the media and the internet could work together to provide relevant and right information guided by such programs like ATLAS, steroids use could probably record lower rates and hence allow a room to completely stop it. It is all in public hands and if the stakeholders could come together and address the steroid problem, then it could be solved.
Works Cited
DEA History, 1990 – 1994. Web.
Goldstein, Paul. J. “Anabolic Steroids: An Ethnographic Approach.” In Geralinie C. Lin and Lynda Erinoff (eds.) The American Drug Scene: An Anthology. Los Angeles, California: Roxbury Publishing Company, 1995. Print.
Hart, Carl L and Carl Hart Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior, 7th ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Mosby, 1996. Print.
Kuhn, Cynthia, Scott Swartzwelder and Wilkie Wilson. Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. and Norton Company, 1998. Print.
National Institute for Drugs and Abuse. Anabolic Steroid Use 2001. Web.
Trace, Mike 2010, Drug Policy—Lessons Learnt, and Options for the Future, Global Commission on Drug Policies. Web.
United Nations, World Drug Report 2012, New York: United Nations Publications, 2012. Print.
Yesalis, Charles. Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise, 2nd Edition. Champaign. IL: Human Kinetics, 2000. Print.