Whatever I do will be done, not by the prudence of men, but by the counsel of God. If the work be of God, who shall stop it? if it be not, who can forward it? Not my will, nor theirs, nor ours; but Thy will, O Holy Father, which art in heaven.
The Protestant Reformation was a movement that began in the 16th century as a series of events to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions which included Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. But how did this all begin? Why did people feel the Catholic Church needed to be reformed, and how has it impacted society today?
Throughout this paper I will answer all of these questions. During the earlier part of the 16th century, the Roman Church had made merchandise of the grace of God. Indulgences for sin were publicly offered for sale by Johann Tetzel1, who had the authority to do so from the Pope. Tetzel declared, by virtue of his certificates of pardon all the sins which the purchaser should afterward desire to commit would be forgiven, and that not even repentance is necessary.
The doctrine of indulgences had been opposed by men of learning and godliness in the Roman Church. There were many who had no faith in pretensions so contrary to both reason and revelation. But no man dared to go against the authority of the Pope, even though their minds were becoming disturbed and uneasy with the ideas of these indulgences. Many people prayed that God would work through some instrument in order to purify His church.
These allegations enraged a man by the name of Martin Luther2. He felt that the Roman Catholic Church was corrupt and that it should be reformed. Luther also argued that a reformation was needed to accomplish other things. In particular, reformation was required with regards to: the language that the Bible was produced in, since most people could not read Latin; the selling of forgiveness, this was considered to be immoral by Luther but had been standard practice by some monks and priests for years. The ideas behind the Protestant Reformation were simple: The Church should be changed, or reformed, so that it was less greedy, fairer and accessible to all people, not just the rich and well educated.
A man is abundantly and sufficiently justified by faith inwardly, in his spirit, and so has all that he needs, except insofar as this faith and these riches must grow from day to day even to the future life. Martin Luther (Hillerbrand 16)Luther argued that the Bible, not the Pope, was the central means to determine Gods word. This was a view that was certain to raise eyebrows in Rome. Also, Luther maintained that justification, or salvation, was granted by faith alone; good works and the sacraments were not necessary in order to be saved.
The protest against the Church was not entirely new. In England, there had been similar protests in the 14th century; although these had been crushed. Luther gained a lot of support for his ideas because many people were unhappy with the Pope and the Church.
In 1517 Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses, also known as The Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences, on the door of the Wittenburg Castle Church. The 95 Theses protested, for theological reasons, the sale of indulgences to finance the Pope’s schemes. Soon they were widely copied and printed; within two weeks they spread throughout Germany, and within two months, throughout Europe.
After disregarding Luther as, “a drunken German who wrote the Theses; when sober he will change his mind”, Pope Leo X3 ordered the Dominican professor of theology, Silvester Mazzolini, in 1518, to look into the situation. Mazzolini recognized Luther’s dangerous potential, declared him a heretic, and wrote a scholastic refutation of the Theses. It asserted Papal4 authority over the Catholic Church, and denounced every departure from it as a heresy. But, as time passed, there was no hope for peace. Luther’s writings were now circulated most widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and many students traveled to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak on the reformation.
Reformers such as Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and John Knox established what would be known as the Five Solas (sola being the Latin word for alone) of the reformation. These five points of doctrine were at the heart of the Protestant Reformation. It was for these five essential Biblical doctrines that the Protestant Reformers took their stand against the Roman Catholic Church, resisting the demands placed on them to recant their teaching even to the point of death. These five essential doctrines of the reformation are: Sola Scriptura, scripture alone; Sola Gratia, salvation by grace alone; Sola Fide, salvation by faith alone; Solus Christus, in Christ alone; Soli Deo Gloria, for the glory of God alone.
Once the reformers had cast off the burden of Church authority, they had to decide, each one for himself, what was the doctrine of Christ. Therefore, private judgment was substituted for the teaching of the Church; human opinion for faith. Each member of the Protestant party naturally had different views regarding the religion of Christ. Instead of the one religion that had been received for ages, the world was now presented with many different religions. (Spalding 224)
Nick – Detached Or Dishonest?
The Great Gatsby presents a challenge for interpretation due to its writing style. Readers must not only distinguish between Nick as the narrator and Nick as the character, but also consider the timing of these perspectives in relation to the story.
In this passage, Nick the narrator reflects on his character’s behavior from the previous year and allows the character to express their opinion. As readers, we trust Nick as a narrator because the information he provides through symbolism, imagery, and personal reflection helps us understand the other characters in the novel. However, we cannot view Nick’s character in the same way due to their dishonesty and hypocrisy. These flaws humanize Nick and make them relatable to readers. It is important to note that Nick’s thoughts as the narrator do not always align with what his character portrays.
In just the third paragraph of this book (Page 5), we discover that Nick possesses a tendency to withhold judgments; however, his tolerance does have its limits (Page 6). Though he may not vocalize his opinions, it is crucial to acknowledge their existence. The role of the narrator is to make us cognizant of Nick’s judgments, as he fails to address them directly. Various techniques enable us to form our own conclusions, particularly through symbolism. The pervasive foul dust permeates the novel, corrupting everything it comes in contact with. This foul dust symbolizes the lives of Daisy, Tom, and Jordan.
After all, they are all immoral characters. Nick’s use of the word “dust” creates a negative atmosphere, but his description of the dust as foul goes beyond that, clearly showing his disapproval of their actions. Through this symbolism, Nick openly presents his opinion without explicitly stating it in words. Despite recognizing the lack of honor in the three characters as he reflects back on that summer, Nick still chose to spend a significant amount of time with them.
Like many others, Nick the character makes a conscious choice to ignore the flaws of his longtime friend Tom, his cousin Daisy, and his lover Jordan. For him, maintaining his friendship with these wealthy and refined individuals is more important than risking their relationship by pointing out their imperfections. This decision to withhold the truth raises doubts about Nick’s honesty. Despite having critical thoughts about the people he spends time with on a daily basis, Nick’s actions rarely align with these thoughts. It is evident that he does not approve of Gatsby’s illegal activities or his involvement with Meyer Wolfsheim, who is rumored to have fixed the World Series in 1919.
When Gatsby offers him a job, Nick promptly declines, stating that he is already overwhelmed with responsibilities. Though he declines the offer, Nick continues to support Gatsby and defends him until the end, solely because he is impressed by Gatsby’s immense hopefulness and romantic readiness. Nick is attracted to Gatsby because he is the only person who embodies everything that Nick disapproves of without any pretense or affectation.
Nick admired Gatsby’s positive outlook and determination but did not agree with his moral principles, leading him to decline the job offer. Although Nick silently disapproves of Gatsby’s values, he never directly confronts him. This lack of honesty in addressing his concerns reflects Nick’s passive nature. If he had been sincere, he would have openly shared his opinion. This tendency to withhold the truth aligns Nick with societal norms.
The majority of individuals are not truthful and compromise their honesty to conform with others. However, this is not necessarily negative because it prevents many individuals from getting their feelings hurt if everyone were to constantly highlight each other’s minor flaws. Nicks relationship with Jordan adds an intriguing aspect to this narrative.
It reflects the conflicting emotions experienced by many lovers, torn between self-focus and love. What sets this example apart is that the narrator and character, both portrayed by Nick, are aligned. This is the only occasion when both are in agreement. When examining the narrator’s depiction of his feelings, it can be inferred that Nick did indeed have love for Jordan. Following their argument at the end of the book, Nick storms off in anger, simultaneously half in love with her and deeply regretful.
These are all characteristics of love! After walking away instead of winning her back, Nick is angry and frustrated with himself. He wanted to get Jordan back but was too stubborn. He felt sorry that he couldn’t compel himself to win back Jordan’s affection because he did love her. However, Nick cannot admit to his genuine love for Jordan in his reflections as a narrator. He is acting tough, pretending he is not soft enough to be weakened by emotions.
Despite a man’s reluctance to fall in love, Nick’s admission of feeling a “tender curiosity” can be considered valid. While it may be challenging for most men to admit to love, Nick’s narration allows us to grasp the true meaning behind his words. However, his character’s emotional concealment necessitates reliance on the narrator to unravel the genuine essence of situations. Understanding the distinction between Nick’s narration and character leads to an intriguing realization of how the two aspects complement each other.
The narration brings a fresh perspective to the character’s actions, highlighting the importance of an honest narrator. Despite Nick’s tendency to be hypocritical and reserved in judgment, this trait is what draws many readers to him. Through the narrator’s insights into Nick’s thoughts, readers can connect with his actions as they recognize similar occurrences in their own daily lives. The words describing Nick’s emotions start to resonate with readers, allowing them to truly feel his experiences instead of simply reading about them. As a result, the narrative becomes more engaging and relatable for readers.
Scott Fitzgerald’s writing style allows his character to come alive in the real world, making it easy for readers to connect with Nick’s dishonesty.
Latin America: A Legacy Of Oppression
Upon their arrival in Latin America, the Europeans were unaware of the magnitude of their actions. Historical records now demonstrate that they caused long-lasting devastation to the indigenous people of this region. After 1492, the Europeans gained control over a significant part of South America and imposed their foreign culture on the pre-existing civilizations. These ideas weakened the continent, resulting in cultural loss and dependence on European nations. Additionally, it fostered enduring ethnic tension between native inhabitants and settlers that still exists today. The indigenous peoples of South America, including the Aztec, Olmec, and Maya cultures in Central America as well as the Inca culture in South America had developed advanced civilizations encompassing calendars, mathematics, writing systems, astronomy, arts, and architecture.
Regrettably, the Europeans demonstrated little respect for the native culture they intended to destroy, prioritizing their own hidden motives instead. Prior to European influence, the diverse tribes scattered throughout Latin America would have been viewed as somewhat uncivilized by Western standards. The European friars were shocked by native customs and felt obligated to “eliminate” them. A highly Christianized perception of the indigenous people emerged, portraying them as ignorant pagans. Some reports depicted the natives as incredibly brutal and unintelligent. It was even alleged that these early tribes practiced bestiality and cannibalism, married their own relatives, committed other serious sins, and served and worshipped the devil.
During the era of colonization, European settlers held extremely biased views and embarked on a crusade to Christianize the indigenous tribes in order to “westernize” their civilizations. These Europeans saw no value in preserving native traditions and assimilated the indigenous cultures into their own. Under the pretext of Christianity, European powers committed atrocities in Latin America with the support of their governments, driven by greed and jealousy. According to an article from National Geographic, the Spanish conquistadors were motivated by their greed for gold and their pursuit of El Dorado, risking their lives and crossing oceans in unfit vessels to seize precious property from the indigenous people. The Spanish royal rulers implemented measures to ensure they could exploit the land and resources of Latin America without any obstruction.
The European governments established missionaries to encourage the missionary process, but they were not allowed to dominate the colony and jeopardize royal rule. In the 16th century, European ships arrived to colonize the land and exploit its natural resources. In the process, they killed indigenous people and brought black slaves from Africa. As a result, millions of indigenous people were slaughtered and their cultures were completely destroyed. This Christianization of the native inhabitants led to a blend of cultures within indigenous civilizations, ultimately isolating old native ways in a small oppressed population. The Christianized individuals became symbols of loyalty to the European powers and were left alone based solely on their religious status. (Ribero)
The total replacement of religion in Latin America by Europeans led to the destruction of strong civilizations and the imposition of an ornate urban lifestyle. According to Mariano Picon-Salas, despite the poverty and backwardness, the ruling class enforced this style of existence from the beginning of colonization. When Europeans eventually left Latin America, the need for their presence became apparent. As native Latin Americans adopted Christianity, they moved away from their indigenous traditions and became more reliant on European culture. The elite associated European capitalism with progress, further deepening their dependency on European countries. This included an unfair economic system based on Capitalistic trade, which was described as unbalanced and asymmetrical in a periodical.
According to Ribeiro, the economic system in Latin America was based on monopolies maintained by dominant groups and nations. These dominant nations including England, Spain, and Portugal, had the collective native people of Latin America as their victims. The article also points out that the powerful nations coercively imposed readjustments on the weak nations in market dealings. This unbalanced economic system trapped Latin America in a state of extreme poverty and mediocrity. It is hard to imagine that a economically dominant country can impose their beliefs on established people, but this had become a frightening reality for the people of Latin America. The Europeans made significant advancements in urbanization, industrialization, and modernization at an unprecedented pace.
The stresses of European westernization had created an overwhelming dependency on European influence among Latin Americans. This was perpetuated by the economic trade with Europeans, who maintained power and wealth even after being overthrown by Latin American rebellions. Latin Americans also relied heavily on a stable government, as the indigenous governments were eradicated by European conquests and replaced with a European system overseen by the occupying European nation’s government. The Spaniards took over an established society, replacing the rulers they had deposed or killed. The Europeans not only destroyed existing government systems but also made it difficult to establish a non-Europeanized government. In his book, “The Poverty of Progress,” E. Bradford Burns concludes that these once strong folk societies had lost their struggle.
The Europeanization that was happening on a large scale made other alternatives non-viable. Europeans faced challenges in establishing a full structured system in a foreign land, especially in the dense rainforest where it was difficult to implement feudalism. According to Claudio Veliz, Spain did not intend to establish true colonization in the forested Amazonian lands, as feudalism was both expensive and susceptible to serfs escaping into the dense forests. When European governments withdrew from Latin America, they took away the structure imposed by the oppressors, leaving the countryside in a state of short-term chaos with spontaneous revolts that quickly lost power and were replaced by others.
The indigenous cultures have been continuously affected by the uncertainty brought about by chaotic uprisings, which failed to meet the people’s expectations and further intensified their sense of uncertainty. Poverty, neglect from the government, corrupt politics, and unattainable progress were the causes of desperation in various countries. Regrettably, ethnic tensions still persist today. These tensions between Europeans and other populations have existed for centuries and currently impact numerous Latin Americans. The European ethnic hierarchy, which predates the colonization of Latin America, continues to oppress the people of this region by prioritizing those with more European features over those with more indigenous features. Consequently, the oppression faced by indigenous individuals that began with the arrival of the first Europeans remains ongoing.
According to Robert Toplin, seventeenth century Europeans solidified an aristocratic society that emphasized social distinctions and class prejudices. These longstanding ethnic tensions have undermined the self-confidence of the native people who had achieved it long before the European conquests. The natives were constantly made to feel inferior with designations that categorized their racial mixture, contributing to their resentment and sense of ethnic inferiority. After centuries of oppressing the indigenous people in Latin America, the European powers lost credibility and trust, no longer regarded as loyal due to their Christian status. The Counter-Reformation led to a mistrust of “new Christians,” resulting in a requirement for proof of “clean blood” as a social necessity (as stated in a book).
Even to this day, the native people still experience a significant occurrence of ethnic inferiority. Specifically, the people of Chiapas, Mexico serve as a prime example of this degradation. The Mexican government compels them to inhabit a region characterized by extreme geographical conditions and infertile soil. Despite demanding basic necessities like running water and equal education, they are denied solely because of their ethnic background. These indigenous Latin Americans face discrimination due to European social concepts imposed on them through the legacy of European colonization. This social stigma of European supremacy confines the Native Latin Americans mentally, resulting in their feeling of inferiority and exile from their own land. After enduring years of oppression and cultural changes, the people of the Latin American region have tragically lost their rights and now find themselves on unfamiliar terrain.
These grounds are composed of Spanish oppression. The native cultures of these “barbaric” societies, which far surpassed the more accepted ways, were made to feel guilty about their traditional ways. The indigenous peoples’ expansive lifestyles were astonishing to the Europeans, but due to greed and deceit, they were forced into a diminished, oppressed way of life. This lifestyle led to the destruction of highly cultural societies. The appreciation for the Indian tribes’ cultures in this vast region was lost at the hands of a less enlightened people. It took hundreds of years for these people to be fully recognized for their value. The natives from the past were initially portrayed as evil and barbaric, but they later gained recognition for their significant contributions and advanced civilizations. There is also great wonder about how these civilizations acquired such extensive knowledge and skills. Today, these cultures are lost heritages to the Spaniards, and the destruction of this magnificent excellence has left a continent in a state of chaotic recovery.
Works Cited
- Burns, E. Bradford. The Poverty of Progress, University of California Press, 1980Gibson, Charles. Spain in America, Harper Torch Books, 1966Hanson, Earl Parker.
- South from the Spanish Main, Delacorte Press, 1967″Latin America.” Encarta. CD-ROM. Seattle: Microsoft, 2001.
- Leon, Juana Ponce de. Our Word is Our Weapon, Seven Stories Press, 2001Liss, Peggy K. and Liss, Sheldon B. Man, State, and Society in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, 1972″The Peace of Latin America.”
- National Geographic October 1905: 479-480Picon-Salas, Mariano. A Cultural History of Spanish America, University of California Press, 1963Radin, Paul. Indians of South America, Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1942Ribeiro, Claudio de Oliveira. “
- Has Liberation Theology Died?” The Ecumenical Review Jul. 1999: 304Toplin, Robert Brent. Slavery and Race Relations in Latin America, Greenwood Press, 1940Veliz, Claudio.
- The Centralist Tradition of Latin America, Princeton University Press, 1980BibliographyBurns, E. Bradford. The Poverty of Progress, University of California Press, 1980Clayton, Lawrence A.
- Bolivarian Nations of Latin America, The Forum Press, Inc., 1984Gibson, Charles. Spain in America, Harper Torch Books, 1966Hanson, Earl Parker. South from the Spanish Main, Delacorte Press, 1967″Latin America.” Encarta. CD-ROM. Seattle: Microsoft, 2001.