Introduction
The field of information technology has been faced with many challenges in its development. However, the security of data is arguably the main challenge in the whole industry. Every new product has to include an aspect of security to attract customers. This paper looks at the security of data in information technology areas to form an opinion on the state of affairs in that department of the industry. The ability of a programmer to come up with a foolproof system is thus a basic requirement in system development. However, the security of data zeros down to the data that is either in transit or at rest.
Major challenges in the security of data
The main challenges of the security of data as mentioned above are the data in transit and data at rest. For data at rest, the main security issues are the ability of an outside source to tamper with the information or even to access the information. The data contained in the databases of various companies include very confidential data that can lead to competitors’ advantages once exposed. Also, the key decisions of the board may be contained in the databanks of an organization. These data once exposed makes the company vulnerable to the malicious traits of the competitors.
As for data in transit, the company has to be certain that it reaches that intended destination. The capability of data was hacked and interfered with puts the company at risk of sending wrong data which could eventually lead to a court case. The company thus had to secure such data. Information about uncompleted contracts and tenders that is in transit should also be secured, the company should ensure that the data that is incomplete remains confidential otherwise another interested individual may get the information and place better bids at the expense of the company.
It is noted worth that the persons at both ends of communication are supposed to have high level of integrity. Leaking of the information about the security models used puts the firm at risk of hackers and black boxes. A hacker interrupts data in transit while a black box uses the data in transit
Programming languages
Data in computer computerized gadgets are presented in English or other languages. However, in the storage space, the data is stored in bytes. These are digital characters that represent the information that the user has stored. The programming languages come in generations and are common. Firms worldwide can be able to understand the information that is stored in orthodox programming languages. This brings about the need to change data, especially data in transit into a format that can only be understood by the authorized sources (Martin, 2008, p 89). The programming languages go in generations. The most recent generation is always preferred to be safer than the previous generations.
Compilers
In the development of safe languages, there is a need to transform the data that the user as from the low-level languages. High-level languages are more secure than low-level languages. The component of the computer that performs this task is the compiler. The compiler is able to read the data in a language, translate it into another language without changing the meaning and compromising the security of the data. The main purpose of a compiler is to develop a new system. However, to develop a secure system, a cross compiler is used. A cross compiler develops systems that can be used on different platforms other than the one that the compiler uses (Shearman, 2006, p65).
Coding of data can be done from various terminals. The ability of a hacker to encode the data using his compiler is the basic failure of a compiler. The programming language of the person making a program should always be updated so as to reflect the current changes in the market.
Encryption
Encryption is the term used in cryptography to refer to the act of transforming a plain text into ciphertext. A plain text is a text that can be read and understood by any user while a ciphertext is an information that can only be understood by the authorized sources. This mode of security is used for both data in transit and data at rest. The method was initially being used by military and security organs in maintaining their secrets. However, encryption has gained popularity and is being used by many civil bodies in securing data in their websites, in transit and also in their remote computers (Giesl, Hahnle, 2010, p94).
The process of transforming data back into a readable format is known as decryption. The person decrypting data has to have the authority to do so which is known as the key. Some encryption uses the same key at source and destinations while others use different keys at the source and at the destination. The use of different keys is usually considered to be safer as parties from both sides of the transit cannot collude as none knows the key used by the other persons (Schumann, 2001, p25).
The encryption of data is categorized according to the level of the program that is used in encrypting and the compiler that has been used in encrypting. The higher the level of language used the safer the encryption. It should also be understood that the recipient computer should have the relevant language to un-code / decrypt the data.
Recaptcha
The field of research and study has been made easier by the availability of online libraries where a person can be able to research different topics from office or home. These facilities have for a long time been vulnerable to unauthorized entry and access of data without the libraries benefiting from the information that they have stored in their online libraries. This led to Carbligie Mellon University coming up with a way to digitize books so that the persons who have access to the information contained in the libraries are only the ones that have the right to do so. Usually, the libraries allow access to persons who have paid the subscription fees. This format has been adopted by almost all online libraries. The digitizing of books has thus become safer. The keys that are used to allow entry into the sources change from time to time and this is to ensure that the persons who default in paying their subscription fees do not continue enjoying the benefits of using the libraries (Won, Kim, 2006, p 400).
This technology has also been used widely by other online users apart from the libraries. Common interactive sites like Facebook and Twitter always use this technology to verify the users of the site. The users are required to type a certain word to certify their use of the site. Also the technology was 2009 adopted by Google one of the greatest web browsers, the company uses the technology while registering new users to its systems.
Algorithmic tamper-proof
The tradition of data security has been the alienation of danger from those persons that have the information about the authorized users’ data like keys and passwords. However, it has been noted that other malicious persons commonly referred to as hackers can use computer functions refers to f to change the original key sk into another key f(sk) which can be used in decoding decrypting, or accessing secured data. Algorithmic tamper-proof comes in to cater for this. The program ensures that hackers and other unauthorized users are not able to come up with a new key. This is done by making sure that the initial key sk is not accessed (Levene, 2010, p 256).
The use of binary codes for data in transit has thus been alienated from unauthorized interference. The inability of the hackers and black boxes to access the initial key sk has been the major backing of the program. This security model is common in departmental communication and cross-company communication.
Non-repudiation
All the above-mentioned modes of security may have degrees of inefficiency however low. This means that even algorithmic tamper-proof can be tampered with by the man in the middle. The tempering gives rise to a need to verify that the data that reaches destination is the one that was originally sent by the sender. In this regard, the recipient of electronic data has to possess a verification mode of the data that he or she receives. This is known as non-repudiation (Fadia, 2009, p322).
Generally, the term refers to the ability of a person to deny information once he or she has appended his or her signature. Similarly in cryptography, the sender cannot denounce the validity of data once the recipient has certified that the data received is authentic. Non-repudiation is the commonly used method of certifying euthenics (Aho, 2007, p213).
Usually, it is the sender who notifies the recipient of the key to use to verify that the data received has not been tampered with along the way. The recipient banking on the key puts that data through a test. The sender thus cannot claim that the data is not the one that had been sent once the test had been passed.
This mode is not applicable to open-ended data. The invitation to tender and advertisement for positions that are done online to the general community cannot be coded otherwise it would beat the logic. Thus the persons sending this information should be keen not to include unnecessary data and data which can lead to the loss of the secrets of the company. This also applies to home sites of many companies. This is where the general information about the company is placed. The deliberation on what information to place in such sites should be guided by the risk that the exposure of such information carries.
Security proofs
A security proof is a procedure used to verify that the mode of security used cannot be tampered with. The theory behind the security of data is the inability of unauthorized sources from solving the problem that is created by the security. The dangers that are posed by unauthorized persons are referred to as black boxes. The hard it is for a black box to solve the problem the safer the mode of security is considered. It is vital for any firm or individual who wants to secure data to run security proof as to the programs that he or she is prospecting to use in securing data (Miller, 2009, p 56).
The security proofs can be carried out at various stages. One the sender of the information should carry out a security proof to ascertain him or her that the information shall reach the destination un-tampered. This should be done with the best programming language. Also the sender should communicate the key that the recipient should use so as to confirm that the sent data is the received data. This communication should also be foolproof. The data received by the recipient should be put through a test as directed by the sender.
Also, the data at the databases should be periodically checked. This is to ascertain that there has neither been unauthorized entry nor changes that have been made. It is vital to change the keys and passwords once a test has been made. This is to block the black boxes that may take advantage of the time immediately after the checks to carry out their vices.
Conclusion
The topic of data security is broad and may not be exhausted thoroughly in the unlimited space. However, the above-mentioned ways have been used by different organs with satisfactory success. As noted in the paper, there is yet to be made a program that is tamper-proof. The more the security is enhanced the better the black boxes become. Thus any user should use the newest security measure for both transit data and data at rest to ensure that data security is enhanced.
Apart from the above-mentioned methods of securing data, many firms have come up with several other ways. However, the modes that have been discussed in this paper are commonly used and have been proved to work. It is recommended that every company or user of information technology measure the importance of the information before deciding the security mode to use. Also, the risk that is involved in consideration. The financial input in the whole security process should be comparable to the financial income of the company and also the risk evaded by the institution of the security measures.
References
Aho, A. 2007. Compilers: principles, techniques, & tools. London: Sage
Fadia, A., 2009. Encryption: Protecting Your Data. London: Sage
Giesl, J., Hahnle, R., 2010. Automated Reasoning. London: Sage
Levene, M., 2010. An Introduction to Search Engines and Web Navigation. New York. : Springer.
Martin, L., 2008. Introduction to identity-based encryption. New York: Artech House
Miller, J., 2009. Compilers: A Practical Approach. New Jersey: Clark Group
Shearman, J., 2006. Information technology.. New York: Artech House
Schumann, J., 2001. Automated theorem proving in software engineering. New York: Artech House
Won, D., Kim, S., 2006. Information security and cryptology: ICISC 2005. New York. : Springer.
Managing Crime And Deviance At Public Events And Public Venues
Introduction
One of the greatest challenges in the world today is the problem of insecurity. This problem is gradually getting out of hand because of an increasing number of criminal cases. Crime can be defined as “the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a conviction” (Bernard 78). Crime is normally handled differently in various countries. For example, what is considered a crime in a country may not be treated as a crime in another nation. “While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime; for example breaches of contract and other civil law may rank as offenses or as infractions” (Cullen 234). Nonetheless, many countries are today treating crimes as offenses.
Crime in Public Events and Venues
Public events and venues always attract many people and criminal activities are quite common in such places. The criminal activities that may be committed in public places can be described as follows.
Selling of Drugs in public venues
First, we have the problem of drugs being sold in parks, beaches and during events like football matches which normally attract many people. Many drug dealers have turned public events and venues into drug markets. They always pose as innocent individuals enjoying leisure time yet they secretly move around with drugs and sell them to their clients. This problem is very complicated and it has even affected the capacity of law enforcement officers to do the right thing.
This is because some police officers have been influenced by drug dealers and they have now become drug lords. Such police officers provide immunity against any possible arrest of drug dealers instead of arresting them. The problem of drugs in public events best explains why there are numerous incidents of crime in such places. This is because many people under drug influence are likely to engage in vices such as robbery with violence.
Theft in Public Venues
Theft is another prevalent crime in such places and this has made people think negatively about attending public events. This is because they do not wish to become victims of such incidents. “Public sexual activity is also another crime and it includes a range of behaviors, such as solitary nude sunbathing, flashing, streaking, solitary or mutual masturbation, fellatio, and vaginal or anal intercourse” (Kubrin 187).
This offense has always received mixed reactions. For example, some individuals do not regard it as a crime since the individuals that engage in it are always comfortable with each other. Some people feel that it is against the expected norms in society hence they disagree with it. “Public sexual activity can attract a hostile audience, creating a risk of violent crime such as assault and/or robbery, as well as a nonviolent crime such as blackmail” (Schamallager 278). Children who witness such criminal activities may be tempted to imitate them and this would have a long-term effect on their decisions and behavior.
Deviance in Public Events and Venues
In our societies, we always have codes of ethics and moral standards which govern how we operate. Deviance refers to going against the set societal norms and regulations. Norms are dynamic and they change from one society to another over a given period. Sociologists view deviance as “any thought, feeling or action that members of a social group judge to be a violation of their values or rules” (Venkatesh 356). Deviance has always been demonstrated by people especially in public events. For example, some individuals always conduct violent protests in the streets without seeking permission. “These people always engage in violence under the pretext of fighting for justice or their rights” (Venkatesh 360).
When such protests ensue, some people always take that advantage to loot other people’s investments. Violent protests always affect the capacity of a person to come up with good personal decisions. “This is because collective decision making is very common in such protests hence the decision of the group is what is always implemented by everybody” (Schamallager 280). This may lead to the development of very unacceptable behaviors among such individuals. For example, people who engage in violent protests are more likely to become violent and rude than people who do not abuse drugs.
Drug abuse has always influenced how people behave in public. This is because it impairs the capacity of a person to reason and do the right thing. For example, one may think that it is normal to shout in the streets after drinking heavily. Apart from this, drug abuse also encourages people to engage in other criminal activities and this can explain why there are so many cases of mugging and theft in public parks and public events.
Management of Crime and Deviance
The problem of crime and deviant behavior can be dealt with through several mechanisms. For example, security should be improved in public places and this would probably reduce the number of criminal activities. Those people who are found committing a crime in public places should be dealt with seriously to deter others from engaging in similar offenses. The management of security in the public venues should not be left for the police officers, but the public should also work together with the police to reduce crime. Rehabilitation centers should be developed to help people who have become drug addicts.
References
Bernard, T 2009, Vold’s theoretical criminology, Wiley, New York.
Cullen, F 2010, Criminological theory: past to present, Oxford University Press, London.
Kubrin, C 2008, Researching theories of crime and deviance, Oxford University Press, London.
Schamallager, F 2010, Criminology: a brief introduction, Prentice-Hall, New York.
Venkatesh, S 2008, Gang leader for a day: a rogue sociologist takes to the streets, Harper Audio, Berkley.
Book Reviews By Krause, Samovar And Porter
Overview
This paper consists of two reviews, one of a keynote speech and one of a chapter in a book. The keynote speech is on the issue of the challenges facing the policy and practice towards first-year students in research-led universities. The book chapter is on the topic of world views, as addressed by authors dealing with communication between cultures. In both of the reviews, the main thesis of the author is identified. This is then followed by a discussion of the points in each document that support the author’s thesis. Finally, each review concludes by reflecting on the points raised in support of the thesis and critically examining them, to determine whether they uphold the stated thesis or not, and by suggesting ways in which the thesis advanced in each document can be either strengthened or undermined, by the addition of further points.
Krause review
In her keynote paper, Krause addresses the issues facing first-year undergraduates in Australian universities, in the context of a rapidly changing global academic environment. [1] She discusses these issues with particular reference to the standpoint of research-led universities, whose circumstances are to some extent distinct from those of teaching universities.
Krause’s main assertion is that universities in Australia and around the world are facing unprecedented change, due to the large number of students who cross international borders in search of higher education and the development of information and communication technology, which enables students to learn in ways that were not possible before. [2] In addition, increasing competition between universities, determined by global rankings, and a decline in federal funds, means that universities are increasingly required to market themselves as distinctive brands to students, who are regarded as clients. [3]
Krause acknowledges that universities may have difficulties in fulfilling the aforementioned requirements, as university staff entrusted with enrolment may have different views from academic staff, which results in a bewildering experience for first-year undergraduates, who may feel that they are receiving contradictory information from university staff. The situation is compounded further by the growth in numbers and diversity of first-year undergraduates. [4]
Krause thinks that three main challenges are facing the teaching of first-year students in research-led universities, namely managing student diversity, building a sense of community and belonging among first-year students, and dealing with student expectations in a practical, realistic manner. [5] In addressing these three challenges Krause admits that academic staff in research-led universities may be torn between research and teaching. [6] Thus the crux of the matter is how to integrate first-year students into the world of research without depriving them of the course content that they need.
On the issue of student diversity, while it is true that first-year undergraduates are coming from an ever more varied range of backgrounds, this should not be allowed to compromise the goals of any university. The perception of students as clients implies that the university should cater to their every whim. However, this should not be the case as it will undermine the mentorship relationship that is supposed to exist between lecturer and student. In research-led universities, more so than in others, a smooth working relationship needs to be established between academic staff and students, so that the integration of the latter into the specialized world of research can commence. The best time to do this is while students are still in their first year, as it is easier to learn new skills early on in undergraduate studies.
The challenge of building a sense of community among first-year students can be pursued both actively and passively. Academic staff can structure their teaching to include group activities that will encourage interaction. However, Krause seems to have ignored the role that students themselves can play in community building, particularly older students. Provided adequate opportunities are given for students to socialize beyond the classroom (such as extra-curricular activities) it will not be difficult for first-year students to become part of the university community. Thus staff should focus on setting up the right policies and leave it up to students to implement them.
Finally, managing student expectations is complicated by the zeal of researchers and marketers, as opposed to what first-year students expect to encounter. As universities are ranked based on their level of research and publishing, research cannot be sacrificed for the sake of teaching. Therefore the solution to this problem would be to engage students in research and teaching concurrently, instead of viewing research and teaching as two unrelated activities. In this way, the first year in a research-led university would turn out to be a period of discovery for students, rather than a time of confusion.
Samovar and Porter review
In their essay, Samovar and Porter state that a world view is an overarching philosophy that individuals and cultures employ to make sense of the world and to interact with it. [7] They state that a world view is such an intrinsic part of an individual and communal perception that one may act by a world view without actually knowing why one does what one does. They support this assertion through various examples. For instance, they explain how the treatment of women in Islam is influenced by the teachings of the Quran and the Hadith, which constitute the Islamic worldview.
The authors state that a worldview has such a strong influence on those who adhere to it that they become incapable of accepting or even conceiving of a different worldview. This understanding presents one’s worldview as imperceptible to oneself. Apart from acting upon us, world views affect how we deal with our surroundings. [8] A useful contrast in this regard is the Christian concept of nature, as opposed to that of the Shinto religion of Japan. While the Christian worldview espoused in Genesis requires humanity to dominate the Earth, the Shinto worldview is that humanity and nature are inseparable and that to do harm to one is to harm the other. Similarly, world views can be applied to understand the different ways in which cultures affect the life of nations. [9]
Although they discuss world views at length, the authors do not discuss the extent to which a world view can be altered, or even whether such a thing is possible. It has been known for individuals to change their religion, and thereby apparently change their worldview, but this does not take into account the similarities that may exist between religions. Indeed, despite the wide variety of cultures and religions in the world, many of them have similar characteristics, such as the prohibition against killing a fellow human being.
It is also erroneous to suppose that all individuals who share a worldview believe the same things. An individual may have an individual world view, which s/he superimposes on the world view of the group, or vice versa. This would account for the presence of sub-groups within groups, such as denominations and sects within religions. Another issue that the authors have not addressed, but which is of interest, is the impact of information on a worldview. In the past, before the communication revolution, a large community could have homogenous ideas about life and the world. However, with the explosion of information at the present day, it is difficult to know whether one’s worldview is constant or whether it is flexible, constantly adapting as it receives new information.
It would also be interesting to inquire into whether there is a maximum age beyond which it is impossible to alter one’s worldview, regardless of new facts presented. Casual observation seems to suggest that this may be the case, as it is known that people become more obstinate in their opinions as they grow older.
In conclusion, world views are an integral part of human life and behavior and should be studied further to enhance interactions between cultures, which is the purpose of the authors’ book.
Bibliography
Krause, Kerri-Lee. “The Changing Face of the First Year: Challenges for Policy and Practice in Research-Led Universities.” Presentation at the University of Queensland First Year Experience Workshop, 2005.
Samova, Larry and Richard Porter. Communication between cultures. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004.