Costa Rica Tourism Analysis
Costa Rica has a vibrant tourism industry that has overtaken bananas to become the largest foreign exchange earner. The country measuring approximately 52,000 square kilometers has more than two thousand plant species and 300 animal species spread throughout the country’s different topography, wildlife and climate. Protected areas and national parks, which hold diverse flora and fauna, cover 23.4 percent of the total land area of the country. This makes Costa Rica the country with the largest conservancy areas in relation to its total land area.
Costa Rica’s small land mass not withstanding, the country is home to 5 percent of the world’s diverse biological species (Hickman, L., 2007). In addition to the various ecosystems, the country has varied terrain, beaches on both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts and has several volcano mountains. Combined, all these factors attract at least 2 million tourists annually, making the country among those that have the highest tourism rates in the world. Consequently, the country earns more than $1.6 billion from this sector.
The secret to Costa Rica’s success in tourism however not only lies in the diverse ecology, but also in several other factors like government policies and the political stability of the country. As a developing country, Costa Rica has become a symbol of political stability. This fact comes from its history as an anti-militarism country that upholds political pluralism, social justice and economic democracy (Reding, A., 1986).
The Government realized the important role that the tourism played in the development of the country and hence put viable policies to ensure that nothing compromises the sector’s integrity. In 1984, legislation was passed that provided incentives to the hotel industry, car rentals, travel agencies and the transport sector. In 1985, tourism related developments were given tax breaks among other incentives. This included a 12 year tax moratorium that was applicable to investors who ventured in new tourism projects (Honey, M, 2008). This led to an increase in hotels from 4,866 officially registered rooms in 1985 to 12,000. In 1987, the Costa Rican Government embarked on a campaign that sought to attract both local and foreign investors to investing in luxurious tourism resorts at which point they engaged the services of USAID. The incentives were however wiped out by 2001, when the government was confident that enough development had taken place to accommodate the majority of foreigners touring the country. The only tax exemption that remained was for the import of raw construction materials aimed at constructing new hotels (Honey, M. 2008).
Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica
In 2006, the government enacted a policy aimed at improving the security around tourism operations in the country. This was in response to the soaring crime rate targeting tourists in the country. The government had to start training a special police unit whose sole mandate was to protect tourists against crimes. The police men were trained on an array of crimes targeting the tourism industry. Such include forgery detection and criminal analysis. Other areas of training were proper communication skills and map reading (Logan, S., 2007).
The government’s intervention was also apparent on the protected tourism areas. In a 2007 world tourism ranking report, the country ranked 12th in regard to strategies employed to protect the natural habitats. It was also placed 17th place world wide for its efforts in developing the tourism sector. This factored in visa facilitation by the government missions in other countries, the signing of bilateral air agreements with other countries in order to make travel easier for the tourists and policies that encourage foreign investment in the tourism sector (Blanke, J, 2007).
The travel and competitiveness report however noted that the government has also faired badly in some sectors. Such include the ports and road infrastructure that tourist use to travel within the country. For this, Costa Rica ranked 93rd. The government did not receive many accolades for the security and the overall safety of tourists as it ranked in 67th position (Blanke, J., 2007). Overall, Costa Rica ranked in the 41 position out of the 124 countries analyzed in the report.
Positive effects of Tourism in Costa Rica
The positive contribution of Costa Rica’s tourism industry is undeniable. Currently, the sector generates 7.5 percent of the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at $659.6 million per year. This is followed by Bananas at $ 633.2 million, Coffee at $417.1 million and beef at $ 43.6 million (Monteverde, M, 2008). The tourism figure is exclusive of the money generated in airfare.
In the mid 1980’s, tourism in Costa Rica accounted for 0.8 percent of revenues generated throughout the world, which represented a 9 percent annual growth from the late 1960’s. Between 1986 and 1994 however, the growth in tourism earning grew by 14 percent. There was an upward growth from the 3 percent growth registered in 1987 to 8.5 percent registered in 1994. Consequently, the growth provided livelihoods to 11.7 percent of the country’s active population (UNEP, 2007).
Tourism has also been a major employment creator in Costa Rica. Directly, it has employed thousands of people in conservancy zones, hotels and the transport industry. Indirectly, the sector stimulates job creations across related sectors.
Tourist to Costa Rica can purchase vacation packages either through a travel agency based in their home country, operators in Costa Rica or entrepreneurs based in their Costa Rican destinations (Inman, C, et al, 1998). To access these packages, the local operators, must contact the local investors who then offer their services at a subsidized rate. The operators add a 16 percent mean mark up, before they package the services and then sell to wholesalers, travel agencies or tour operators. This process creates a value adding chain which involves the investors as the main beneficiaries, then the ground operators, who then sell their packages to the travel agents often adding a 50 percent mean mark up. Overall, local entrepreneurs In Costa Rica include the food providers, the hotels, tour guides, airlines and land transport facilitators (Inman,C et al, 1998).
The growth of the tourism sector has also had major affects in the housing industry. As the economic growth of the country soars from the tourism benefits, villages that were formerly secluded in development are slowly being converted to modern tourism hubs. New housing developments and resorts are sprouting up in many parts of the country in anticipation of the ever growing tourism industry. Consequently, the government is earning more in taxes, which is later used in infrastructure development (Clanton, W., 2008)
Factors that led to tourism growth in Costa Rica
Several things have contributed to the development of the Costa Rican tourism industry. Chief among them is the good image of the country created by several institutions abroad. The good image creates an appeal to tourists whose adventurous nature is only satisfied by traveling to the country.
Overtime, Costa Rica has developed an image that revolves around environment conservation. It has the largest deforested area in Latin America, in addition to having the highest percentage of land under government protection. Most of the country’s protected areas are accessible to tourists more than even the indigenous people (UNEP, 2007). This strong image portrays the country as a good ecotourism site. This attracts more tourists to the country annually.
In view of the benefits accrued from the tourism sector, the government works to expand the tourism sector by attracting more airlines to fly directly to the country. The country targets airlines from the United States and European countries as this are the main source of the country’s tourists (Clanton, W., 2008).
The Costa Rican experience also plays a major role in ensuring that the country enjoys repeat tourists. In most cases, the tourists want to experience the different tourism sectors of the country. If unable to accomplish this during a single visit, they surely travel back to the country during another holiday. Others cannot have enough of the country’s sites and therefore keep going back (Clanton, W., 2008).
The country also benefits from its close proximity to the United States, the welcoming nature of its people, pleasant climate and a superior infrastructure that makes visitors communicate and travel easily. In addition, its political stability, impressive human rights record and well functioning democracy improve its ratings as one of the most stable tourism destinations (Honey, M, 2008).
Tourist activities in Costa Rica are divided into the following segments: ecotourism, sightseeing, Surfing, Canopy tourism, Snorkeling, volcano visits, rafting, beach and waterfront tourism and sport fishing. The Ministry of Tourism announced in 2007 that it would promote four main forms of tourism: Eco-tourism, Sun/beach/sand, rural based tourism and Adventure tourism.
Eco tourism in Costa Rica
Although there is no clear definition of what eco tourism really is, the modern perception alludes to it being some form of responsible tourism that not only takes great joy in natural beauty of the environment but also ensures that there are minimal effects to the environment, natural habitats are conserved and local communities develop from tourism. In Costa Rica, eco tourism is the leading tourism segment, so much that it is the identifying factor for the country. The resolve of the country towards eco-friendly tourism is evident right from the president who in 2007, commissioned the Peace with Nature Initiative- a plan that sought to apply the country’s non-militarism values to the environment sector. Accordingly, the goals of the initiative was to plant 5 million trees annually, steer the country’s environment conservation tradition to stronger heights and make Costa Rica carbon neutral by 2030 (Honey, M.2008)
According to the 2005 Costa Rican tourism statistics, 61 percent tourist were interested in the country’s national parks, while 66 percent observed the flora and fauna.
Eco tourism is easily confused with nature based tourism (Primrose, H. 2003). However, unlike nature tourism whose basic description involves the use of nature platform to entertain tourists, eco tourism involves traveling in natural habitats, building environment awareness, respecting local culture and empowering local people on ways to conserve the environment (Primrose, H. 2003).
Costa Rica offers twelve life zones for the eco-tourism enthusiasts found within the 29 parks and protected areas of the country. Ecotourism is divided into several categories
Hard eco-tourism: Tourists who visit Costa Rica for hard ecotourism have deep seated interest in nature. Their travel involves camping and strenuous physical escapades. Tourism that falls under this category includes bird watching, botanical trips and nature photography. Such tourists require guides who know their destinations well and may be deeply education (Baker, C.P, 2008).
General/Soft ecotourism: This segment covers tourists who are interested in wildlife observation, hiking among other natural but less taxing activities. This category is less educational and more relaxed (UNEP, 1998).
http://www.travelingcostarica.com/Costa_Rica_hotel_resort_lodge/fotos_web/foto_monteverde5.jpg
Adventure ecotourism: This segment involves adventures that range from moderate to high risk activities. Such include scuba diving, bungee jumping, canoeing, kayaking, sport fishing, whitewater rafting, and wind surfing and snorkeling. Although these activities in this segment do not meet the criteria of using the environment with conservatory, opponents argue that the activities do no harm to the environment. Since participants in such activities are less concerned about the structure or complexity of the environment, they are required to learn the basics of protecting the outdoor destinations (UNEP, 1998).
Education Ecotourism: This segment involves educational trips organized by learning institutions. They may include lecturers or formal talks regarding the environment. On individual levels, a person may take an educational tour when conducting a research (UNEP, 1998). The length of his/her research will determine how long he/she stays in Costa Rica
Canopy Tourism: Faced with rising threats of deforestation as more people try to acquire land for development purposes, Costa Rica has embraced Canopy tourism as a viable way of ensuring that the forest cover in the country is protected. This form of tourism takes place in the rainforest canopy. In this segment, tourists, who mainly consist of 90 percent foreigners- ride on steel cables attached to trees (Seibel, M, 2005). According to the Costa Rican government, 25 percent of all foreign tourists participate in this form of tourism. In addition, this segment is lucrative and attracts tourists who do not mind spending much on holidays. A three hour tour averages $55 and thus contributes significantly to the overall revenue collected. The canopy tourism is highly unregulated from both the government agencies and environmentalists (Seibel, M, 2005) something that makes analysts questions (the justification of canopy tourism as part of ecotourism).
The uniqueness of Costa Rica is among the driving forces that raise the demand for the country’s ecotourism (UNEP, 1998). Other things include the country’s level of environmental conservation, the branding of the country’s tourism industry by the government and other stakeholders and the marketing of the country abroad. These factors have succeeded in creating a unique perception of the country in the eyes of tourist thus increasing people who travel to the country.
Like everything else in a free market economy, an increase in the quality of the ecotourism in response to governments efforts that make the country a better tourist destination, dramatically increased the demand for the same from tourists (UNEP, 1998). A survey conducted in 1995 by the Costa Rican Institute of Tourism revealed that 53 percent of tourism rate Costa Rica as excellent, while 40 percent rated the country as good( ICT, 1995).
The fact that a tourist is let loose in the ecological habitats to search for the animals they want to see, makes the experience even more fulfilling for most tourists and considerably lowers the costs as there is no guide hired , unless one wants to (UNEP, 1998).
http://www.infocostarica.com/images/photos/articles/flora2.jpg
Rural Tourism
Rural tourism in Costa Rica presents foreigners with a glimpse of the country’s history, culture, unique assets, nature, talents and people. According to the official government website, rural Costa Rica is an authentic tourist attraction that cannot be imitated. As such, rural tourism is pursued by the government as a development tool and as a way of enhancing the country’s identity (Instuto Costarricense de Turismo- ICT, 2008).
The main target for rural based tourism is to promote local participation in tourism related activities, thus creating equity in the country while also encouraging local investments. Consequently, at least two jobs have been created in most rural Costa Rican households (ICT, 2008.).
Activities popular in rural tourism include horse riding, agricultural activities, fishing, village festivities and cultural ceremonies and fuses alternative methods that the rural community in Costa Rica uses. Other possibilities that largely depend on the rural location that a tourist decides to pick include sport activities, nature tourism, beaches, adventurous tourism and sun bathing (ICT, 2008).
At times, rural tourism is offered by organized groups or communities, but individuals are also allowed to host tourists. In the end, the rural communities benefit socially and economically, while the tourist gets to enjoy the advantages that comes from the community dynamics. Overall, the friendliness of the Costa Rican people towards tourists is an added advantage as this draws even more tourists to the country.
Sun/sand/beaches Tourism
Costa Rica is endowed with beaches on both the Carribean sea coast and the Pacific Ocean coast. Both sides are suitable for sunbathing. However, the Caribbean beaches offer ideal settings for sport fishing, sunbathing and snorkeling. Beaches on the Pacific side on the other hand offer suitable settings for surfing.
Adventure tourism
Adventure tourism in Costa Rica comprises of rafting, snorkeling, surfing, bungee jumping, canopy tourism, bird watching, trekking, volcano climbing, plant, and wildlife watching.
Cacho Negro Volcano rising out of the clouds blocks the view of Poás from the north
(photo © R. Krueger-Koplin)
The Costa Rican culture also offers some adventure for foreign tourists (ICT 2008). The country has a diverse culture that sprouts from the pre-Hispanic natives and other immigrants who have settled in the country overtime. In addition to he Bribri, Maleku, Cabecar, Teribe, Ngobe, Boruca, Chorotega and Huetar tribes, the Chinese, Italians, Hebrews and People with African descent have made Costa Rica their home thus making the country a melting pot of cultures( ICT, 2008)
Negative effects of the Costa Rican Tourism
While Costa Rica may be trying harder than any other country to conserve it natural habitats, the country had the highest deforestation rates in 1994(Kutsce, P, 1994).While it total forest cover was at 72 percent in 1950, the same stood at 34 percent in 1985. This was done in order to pave way for development to cater for the growing tourism industry. Another reason for deforestation was cultivation and food production. The impact of logging on the environment is dire. They include soil erosion, silting of rivers, whose capacity to produce hydro electric power is reduced(Tensie, W, 1991).
There has been wide spread criticism that ecotourism does not live up to it conservation ideals (Farrell, T.A and Marion, J.L. 2001). Even in protected areas in Costa Rica, the nature trails and recreational sites degrade the environment. A study conducted by Duke University on the effects of ecotourism on birds revealed that the human disturbance, which occurs when thousands of visitors go to the parks, disrupts the birds foraging behavior and reduces the overall habitat (biology.duke.edu, 2005).
There has also been allegation of animal exploitation by humans who visitors. In the Manuel Antonio Forest for example, the squirrel monkeys attracts thousands of visitors annually. In 1992, the statistics suggested that the forest received at least 192,000 visitors a year (Taylor, V.J et al, 1996), a number which could have increased by now. Apart from the disturbances created by visitors in this park, there have been cases of visitors taunting the monkeys (Taylor, V.J. 1996). Pat of the park habitat has also been lost to expanded infrastructure, which was done in order to cater for the increasing number of tourists. In addition, capturing monkeys and domesticating them has also been revived and this leads to a decline in the monkey population.
In part, the government has been blamed for not having good enough policies and penalties to deter environment degradation thus perpetuating the self interests prevalent in Costa Rica’s tourism industry (Taylor, V.J et al, 1996).
Criticism to the effect that most of the money gained from tourism does not benefit the local communities abounds. Since a significant percentage of investment in the tourism sector comes from foreign investors, most earnings benefit them rather than the local people. In fact 60 percent of all tourism earnings in Costa Rica end up with the foreign investors, a sizeable percentage of the remaining 40 percent goes to the government and is sued to develop tourism related infrastructure, while only 2 percent of the income benefits the local communities (Taylor, V.J, 1996).
Greenwashing- is a term used to describe the practice employed by most Costa Rican tour operators to market their tour packages as eco-friendly. This has also been blamed for the negative impact that tourism has had on the environment. By greenwashing their services, companies mislead tourist to believing that their packages or offers are good for the environment while in reality, the marketing tour company is just using the package as a means of cost cutting.
The buffer zones created around the protected areas in Costa Rica also deserve as much conservation, this is not happening (Sanchez-Azofeifa, G.A. et al 2002). There has been reported forest loss in the buffer zones, which serves to expose the protected areas to possible human invasion. Already the buffer zones are being used as development zones.
While proponents of ecotourism may argue that the practice ensures that Costa Rica earns from tourism while still maintaining it virgin territories within where its forests are held. However, the reality is that packaging wildlife sanctuaries and national parks as green products suitable for eco-tourism does little good to the environment (Kamuaro, O. 2008).
Costa Ricans are known for their friendliness that they treat foreigners with. Also, other factors like dance, sports and music define their culture. The cultural identity of these people is however under threat especially as more foreigners integrate with the indigenous people. The fact that the indigenous people may sooner or later realize that they do not benefit much from tourism, yet their environment is suffering as a result of the increased tourism is also a factor that may strain relationships between the tourists and the indigenous Costa Ricans in future (Hickman, L. 2008).
Indirectly, the fossil fuels and emissions that come from jet fuels as tourists head to their destination are a major source of pollution. The fact that some airlines claim that they have carbon offset schemes does not offer enough remedy to the emission problem. The more tourists traveling to Costa Rica, the more emissions are made to the air (Hickman, L. 2008).
Visitor overcapacity is another factor that sector observers believe has overstretched the small country’s capacity. A good example is the Manuela Antonio Park which records an average of 1,000 tourist visitors daily during the peak seasons. Since there is no regulation regarding the inflow of tourists, animal and plant’s life in the park has reduced dramatically. Monkeys have also turned to feeding on garbage (Baez, A. 2002,)
In some cases, the profit motive from the tourism industry may override the protection agenda set forth by the government. This is applicable both to the government agencies mandated with regulating the activities in this sector and individual players (Dapin, M. 2001). Because the government agencies are not strict in the regulation standards, they certify profit driven organizations, which do not care much about the environment. There has also been an irresponsible case where tour guides engage in activities that are not eco-friendly (Dapin, 2001).
The fact that Costa Rica depends so much on donor funding also undermines the government’s role in the conservation agenda. In 1992 alone, foreign donors provided 77 percent of the overall budget needed for operations in protected areas, where as the government catered for 23 percent only. This invariably undermines the extent that the government can enforce policies without consulting with the financiers (Baez, A. 2002).
Costa Rican local workforce may also feel exploited especially because often times they are excluded from major development jobs and only relegated to low income jobs which hold less prospects of career advancement (Garen, E.J, 2000). The only exception to this is the hotel industry which is mainly owned by Costa Rican nationals. However, some hotels still employ foreigners in top management positions citing the lack of qualified and competent locals to fill the positions (Baez, A. 2002).
Although Costa Rica has a long standing record of political stability, the rise in the tourism sector, political instability that may happen in the country, terrorism threats, crime or global recession may trigger a decline in tourism visiting the country. The country’s economy would then take a heavy blow especially now that tourism earnings have replaced bananas, coffee and beef as the main exchange earner (america.edu).
A final concern that Costa Rica must contend with is how to institute season based tourism. All year round travel as is the case in most parks often affects the routine of animals. This is also an ideal way of ensuring minimal environment degradation in the country (Cater, E, and Lowman, G, 1994).
Conclusion
There is no doubt that tourism plays a major role in the economic development of Costa Rica. When the negative and positive effects are considered, the conclusion would be that the positive aspects override the negative effects. Costa Rica is doing better than other countries in combining the economic aspect of tourism with the conservation aspect (Wight, P.A, 2002).
The classification of Costa Rican tourism by the government has also played a major role in ensuring that every aspect of the tourism sector is monitored and any change in trends documented. This is not only good for statistical reason, but also for the purposes of monitoring environment conservancy practices or lack of them. It is true that the government has and will still have problems reconciling the rising demand for tourism in this country with the environment ideals that upholds sustainable tourism. To address this, the government will have to device ways to balance the two.
Rural tourism is a concept that if embrace by majority Costa Rican nationals can help diffuse the profits made in the tourism sector from the big investors to the ordinary local people who have for a long time missed out on the benefits that come from the sector. Tourism earnings from rural tourism will no doubt increase in coming years especially as the development space in urban areas runs out and the infrastructure in the rural areas develops. Overall, the tough choices that the Costa Rican government has to make towards profitability and environment conservation are well worth the economic gains.
References
Baker, C. P. 2008. Ecosystems. Retrieved January 21 2009. http://www.centralamerica.com/cr/moon/moflora.htm
Blanke, J. (2007). The travel and Tourism Competitiveness report: Furthering the Process of Economic Development Retrieved January 21, 2009 http://www.weforum.org/pdf/tourism/Part1.pdf
Biology.duke.edu. (2005): Case Studies in Ecotourism. Retrieved January 20, 2009 http://www.biology.duke.edu/bio217/2005/cmp8/wildlife.html
Cater E. and Lowman, G (1994). Ecotourism in the Third World – Problems and Prospects for Sustainability in: Ecotourism, a sustainable option. Ed. Baltimore: John Wiley & Sons publishers.
Clanton, W. 2003. Costa Rica- Tourism and the Economy. Retrieved January 21, 2009 http://ezinearticles.com/?Costa-Rica—Tourism-and-the-Economy&id=1576632
Farrell, TA and Marion, JL. (2001). Identifying and assessing ecotourism visitor impacts at eight protected areas in Costa Rica and Belize Retrieved http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/ecotour/abstracts-fcat2.php
Garen, E, J (2000). Appraising Ecotourism in Conserving Biodiversity” Foundations of Natural Resources Policy and Management Ed. Yale University Press Hickman, L. (2007) Shades of Green. Retrieved January 21, 2009 from http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2007/may/26/saturday.costarica?page=all
Hickman, L.( 2008).Costa Rica claims first ‘zero emissions’ airline. http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/blog/2008/jan/03/ididntknowitat
Honey, M. 2008. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise?. Ed. New York: Island Press
Hickman, L. (2008). Costa Rica claims first ‘zero emissions’ airline. Retrieved January 20, 2009 http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/blog/2008/jan/03/ididntknowitatICT (2008). Costa Rica: No Artificial Ingredients. Retrieved January 20, 2009 http://www.visitcostarica.com/ict/paginas/playas.asp
Kamuoro, O. 2008. Ecotourism: Suicide or Development: Non Governmental liaison service. Retrieved January 21, 2009 http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/ecotour/abstracts-fcat2.php Kutsche, P.1994. Voices of Migrants: Rural-Urban Migration in Costa Rica. Florida: University Press of Florida
Logan, S. (2007) Securing Tourism in Costa Rica. Retrieved January 21, 2009 from http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Current-Affairs/Security-Watch/Detail/?ots591=4888CAA0-B3DB-1461-98B9-E20E7B9C13D4&lng=en&id=52892
Mark, D.(2001). Erupting Volcanoes and Poisonous Frogs are no Problem – It’s the Tour Guides you should be wary of. The London Times April 21, 2001
Monteverde, M.( 2008). Eco-tourism: Rethinking the benefits. Retrieved January 21 2009. http://www.amerispan.com/travel/article/Eco_Tourism_Rethinking_the_Benefits/36
Median.com. (2008). Ecotourism
Reding, A.(1986). Voices from Costa Rica . World Policy Journal Vol.3
Sanchez-Azofeifa, G.A. et al (2002). Integrity and isolation of Costa Rica’s national parks and biological reserves: examining the dynamics of land-cover change. Abstract. Retrieved January 21, 2009. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL
Seibel, M. 2005. Canopy ecotourism study: Evaluation of Canopy Tourism in Costa Rica. Retrieved January 20, 2009 http://www.scribd.com/doc/5032780/Evaluation-of-Canopy-Tourism-in-Costa-Rica
Taylor, V, J. et al. (1996). The Exploitation of Mammal Populations. Ed. New York: Springer Publishers
Tensie, W. (1991).Nature Tourism: Managing the environment. Washington DC. Island Press
Wight, P.A. (2002) Eco-Tourism: Ethics or eco-sell. Journal of Travel Research Vol. 3
Polavaram Dam Project
The Polavaram Project is a national multi-purpose irrigation project involving the construction of a dam across the Godavari River in the West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh, India.
Purpose
The National River-Linking Project, initiated by the Indian Ministry of Water Resources, aims to address water scarcity in India. Its objective is to transfer excess water from Himalayan rivers to peninsular rivers within the country. This project comprises 30 river-links covering a total distance of 14,900 kilometres (9,300 mi), making it the largest infrastructure project worldwide. In 1999, this endeavor was estimated to cost US$120 billion. The project identifies the Godavari River basin as a source of surplus water and acknowledges the Krishna River basin’s insufficient water resources. By 2008, around 644 tmcft of underutilised water from the Godavari River had flowed into the Bay of Bengal. To meet future water demands by 2025, it is recommended that a significant amount of surplus water be transferred from the Godavari River basin to the Krishna River basin.
The first proposal for the project was made in July 1941 by the Madras Presidency. L. Venkata Krishna Iyer, the chief engineer of the presidency’s irrigation department, conducted a survey of the project site and proposed a reservoir at Polavaram. This reservoir aimed to cultivate 350,000 acres of land over two crop seasons and include a 40 megawatt hydroelectric plant. The estimated cost of the entire project was 65 million (US$990,000). The initial designs of Polavaram dam included a full reservoir level (FRL) of 208 ft MSL, with a gross storage capacity of 836 tmcft and a 150 MW hydroelectric plant. By 1946-47, the cost estimation increased to 1.29 billion. The project was named Ramapada Sagar Project as the backwaters of the reservoir would touch the Lord Rama temple at Bhadrachalam. In the final design by Dr.K.L. Rao, the right bank canal of Polavaram project extended to the south of Krishna River to meet irrigation needs in the old Guntur district through an aqueduct across the Krishna River.
The current project being built has been reduced to FRL 150 ft MSL. The estimated cost of the project in 2004 was 86.21 billion.[7]
In 1980, the project was initiated by then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh T. Anjaiah by laying the foundation stone. However, until 2004 when the Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy-led government assumed power, the project remained inactive. In 2004, the Government of Andhra Pradesh provided a funding of 13.2 billion (US$200 million) for the project. Subsequently, tenders were issued for the corresponding services of the right canal. The state government also sanctioned an additional 13.53 billion for the left canal.
The construction of the dam at Polavaram was not feasible during the last century due to technological and economic reasons. The proposed site is situated where the river transitions from the Eastern Ghats into plains with deep alluvial sandy layers. The width of the river at Polavaram is approximately 1500 m. However, the excavation required to reach the hard rock at this site, which is more than 30 m deep, made the project economically unviable. Nonetheless, an attractive alternative site exists upstream of Polavaram, where the river flows through deep gorges in the Papi hill range. In this rocky gorge stretch, the width of the river is only about 300 m. Thirty years ago, it was considered technically challenging to connect the reservoir to the irrigation canals via tunnels in the ghat area. Additionally, constructing an underground hydroelectric station at this alternate site was more costly compared to a river bed based hydroelectric station. When the project began in 2004, the old finalized designs for the Polavaram site were adopted without re-evaluating the latest costs associated with the upstream alternate site, taking into account advancements in construction technology for tunnels and underground hydroelectric stations. Progress in the construction of dam structures and the hydroelectric station has been almost non-existent until 2012. The alternate site in the gorge stretch is still worthy of reconsideration to reduce the continuously increasing costs of the Polavaram dam.
The Polavaram Project is built on a foundation of Khondalite bedrock, which includes feldspar-rich minerals such as soft graphite and hard garnet. Unfortunately, Khondalites are highly weathered and therefore not suitable for use at the dam site.[1]
According to the information from 2004, the proposed project can hold 75.2 tmcft, which would allow for the irrigation of an extra 232,000 acres in several districts of Andhra Pradesh: Krishna, West Godavari, East Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, and Srikakulam.[7]
The proposed project entails the construction of a 2,310-meter (7,580 ft) dam made of earth-cum-rock fill. The dam includes a spillway with 44 vents, measuring 907 meters (2,976 ft) in length and allowing for the discharge of 3,600,000 cu ft/s (100,000 m3/s) of water. Additionally, there are plans to install 12 water turbines on the left side with an individual capacity of 80 megawatts. A right canal connects to Krishna River upstream of Prakasam Barrage and discharges 17,500 cu ft/s (500 m3/s) at the head works over a distance of 173 kilometers (107 mi). Similarly, the left canal has identical discharge rates and stretches for 182 kilometers (113 mi).[7]
This proposed project will lead to the displacement of 276 villages and affect a total of 44,574 families across three districts in Andhra Pradesh. Among those affected are numerous tribal communities. Activists advocating for human rights oppose this project based on these grounds. One activist also expressed concerns about its negative impact on Telangana and Rayalaseema regions within the state.[14] Environmental activist Medha Patkar further emphasized that this project would result in thousands of families being displaced as well as submerging archaeological sites, coal deposits, a wildlife sanctuary, and hectares of farmland.[15]
In 2005, the Government of Andhra Pradesh received environmental clearance for a project. This clearance was obtained after developing a forest management plan and rehabilitation proposal. The project involved the loss of 59,756 hectares. Furthermore, each displaced individual would be given an allotment of 40,000 for their new dwelling, which was more than the amount offered by other states (25,000). However, political obstacles emerged despite this clearance. Concerns were raised by the Communist Party of India (M) and Telangana Rashtra Samithi regarding the submergence of agricultural lands and potential harm to Telangana.
The project began in April 2006 and was scheduled to be finished by February 2007. However, it faced a temporary suspension in May 2006 due to the need for clearance from the Ministry of Forests and Environment. At that time, the excavation work for the canal was 30% complete and the spillway works were 15% complete.[19][20]
The state of Orissa expressed worry about the potential flooding of its land and decided to discuss the problem with officials from Andhra Pradesh.[21] In reply, Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy guaranteed that the construction would not harm Orissa or Chattisgarh.[22] The issue continued until 2010 when Chief Minister Naveen Patnaik of Orissa requested compensation and resettlement for the indigenous people who would lose their homes due to the flooding.[23]
Orissa and Chattisgarh have jointly filed a petition in the Supreme Court to oppose a Project that may result in substantial land submergence in their states. They assert that Andhra Pradesh is carrying out the project without obtaining necessary approvals from the Central Water Commission (CWC) and the Environment Ministry, and that no public consultations were held in the affected regions.
Poetic Style Of Robert Frost
Robert Lee Frost, New England’s cherished poet, has been called America’s purest classical lyricist and one of the outstanding poets of the twentieth century. He was a modernist poet. During his childhood, he thrived in English and Latin classes and discovered a common thread in Theocritus’ and Virgil’s poetry and the romantic balladry. Frost’s style was influenced by the early romantic poets as we can see the romantic features in his poems and also by the contemporary British poets as Edward Thomas, Rupert Brooke, and Robert Graves. Many of his poems had to do with nature and transcendentalism.
“Of all his poetic elements, Frost’s style seems the hardest to pin down. Actually one cannot pin it down, but something could be said to further our un-enlightenment”, says Lawrence Thompson. He then moves on to state what Frost said about style in a letter to his friend Louis Untermeyer dated March 10, 1924, “style in prose or verse is that which indicates how the writer takes himself and what he is saying…….His style is the way he carries himself toward his ideas and deeds.” Randall Jarrell a poet/critic praised Frost’s style as “No other living poet has written so well about the actions of an ordinary man.”
The essential element of Frost’s style is his choice of words or diction. He uses everyday (simple) words you would use in conversation. Frost writes his sentences with meter and rhythm to increase their beauty. His style also comprises various elements such as lyric and narrative, with characters, background, and imagery drawn from New England, choice of rural (pastoral) subjects, and realistic depiction of ordinary life and people. He also uses many poetic devices adding to the craftsmanship of the poem. The language used in his poems is simple and rustic.
Frost is universally recognized for being a pastoral poet who deals with the subject of everyday life of the humble dwellers in the countryside with their works and loved ones, with their joys and sorrows, and the background setting is nature. Many of his most famous poems (such as “Mending Wall” and “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”) are inspired by the natural world, particularly his time spent as a poultry farmer in New Hampshire. Ironically, until his adulthood in New England, Frost was primarily a “city boy” who spent nearly all of his time in an urban environment. It is possible because of his late introduction to the rural side of New England that Frost became so intrigued by the pastoral world. Frost states that “Poetry is more often of the country than the city…Poetry is very, very rural – rustic. It might be taken as a symbol of man, taking its rise from individuality and seclusion – written first for the person that writes and then going out into its social appeal and use.” Yet Frost does not express pastoral only in terms of beauty, as in a traditional sense. Instead, he also emphasizes the harsh conflicts of the natural world: the clash between urban and rural lifestyles as seen in his poem “Mending Wall”.
Frost’s poetry is simple and clear. Richard Wilbur points out “it is not written in the colloquial language of an uneducated farm boy, but rather in a beautifully refined and charged colloquial language.” Poems are said to be lyric, narrative, or dramatic and Frost wrote in all these three forms. Lyric poetry is usually short; expressing personal thoughts and feelings, and it is spoken by a single speaker about his feelings for an object or a person. For example ‘Mowing’ is a lyrical sonnet where Frost talks about the speaker’s own opinion or rather ideas about the sound a scythe makes mowing hay in a field by a forest, and what this sound might signify.
Narrative poetry tells us a story of a single event. For example: ‘Out, Out’ is a narrative in blank verse written in a continuous structure where Frost talks about the death of a boy in a farm (accident). Dramatic poems have speaking characters as in a little play. Frost’s dramatic poems fall under four categories- ballads, linear narratives, dramatic monologues, and dramatic narratives. One of Frost’s famous poems ‘The Death of a Hired Man’ is an example of dramatic narrative which is written in blank verse.
Frost has written many poems with speakers engaged in conversation like ‘A Hundred Collars’ and ‘The Death Of A Hired Man’, he has always been interested in distinguishing New England speakers who are highly characterized in his poems because he was born in San Francisco and spent his early years there. “I could enumerate more derivations in Frost’s conversational style, but the point is that this style doesn’t try to imitate the inconsequentialities of spoken discourse” (Charney, Maurice. 1). Charney also stated, “Frost is not at all like David Mamet or Harold Pinter, although these two dramatists are probably just as far from the realities of everyday conversation as Frost.” His use of ordinary conversational style is tremendous.
Symbolic and metaphorical devices are one of the elements of Frost’s poetic style. Frost said, “Every poem I write is figurative in two senses. It will have figures in it, of course; but it’s also a figure in itself – a figure for something, and it’s made so that you can get more than one figure out of it.”(Cook Voices p235). The use of metaphorical devices in Frost’s poetry is more obvious. A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a comparison is made between two things which are not alike. In most of his poems, we can see the use of metaphors; he is notably a poet of metaphors more than anything else. For example: In the poem ‘Putting in the seed’ the planting of seed in the garden, in springtime is like (compared to) making love, in another poem of Frost called ‘Devotion.’ the passive but ever-changing shore and the persistent energetic ocean are compared to a devoted couple.
Frost said,” Poetry begins in trivial metaphors, pretty metaphors, ‘grace metaphors,’ and goes on to the most profound thinking that we have. Poetry provides the one permissible way of saying one thing and meaning another. People say, ‘Why don’t you say what you mean?’ We never do that, do we, being all of us too many poets. We like to talk in parables and hints and indirections – whether from diffidence or some other instinct” (Excerpt from an essay entitled “Education by Poetry” by Robert Frost).
Symbolic representation may be an object, person, situation, or action which stands for something else more abstract. For example: In the poem ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ even though there is no one overt symbol in the poem, the entire journey can represent life’s journey. “Dark woods” also become a powerful recurring symbol in Frost. Certain signature images become symbols when we look at Frost’s work namely, trees, birds and birdsongs, solitary travelers, etc.
Inspired by the romantic poets, Frost’s works influence romantic features as in the use of imagery. Poetry indirectly appeals to our senses through imagery. Frost’s use of “the sound of sense” is most successful because of the clarity and colloquial nature of his poetry. It is only because of this clarity that Frost can explore topics of emotion, struggle, and conflict that would be incomprehensible in any other form.
Bibliographies
- http://www.frostfriends.org/tutorial-poetics.html.
- http://mcardleenglish.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/ROBERT-FROST-Revision-notes-.pdf