Art Nouveau
There are a great variety of different art movements that are subcategorized under the banner of decorative arts. While there are a great many general categories, there are also sub-divisions that comprise “sub-genres” within the movement. One such “subgenre” is the Art Nouveau movement of the early 20th century. This movement brought a unique flavor to traditional painting, but it also provided a radical departure in what was considered ‘the norm’ for architecture and furniture during the time period.
In order to understand the aspects of the subcategory of Art Nouveau, one must first examine the general category of decorative arts. Decorative arts are traditionally defined as works in ceramics, wood, glass, glass, metal or textiles. The field includes ceramics, furniture, furnishing, interior design, and architecture. The decorative arts are often categorized in opposition to the “fine arts” namely painting, drawing, and photography, and large scale sculpture. Some distinguish between decorative and fine arts based on their functional intended purpose, importance, status as a unique creation, or as a single artist production. For the purpose of recording for posterity, the Decorative Arts Collection, Inc, was created in 1982. This recording for posterity included collecting preserving and displaying decorative painting in a variety of means such as wood, glass, metal and textile.
On such area of artwork that is a popular derivative of this movement, is Art Nouveau. Art Nouveau was a radical departure from traditional forms of what is normally considered ‘standard’ forms of art. Art Nouveau, while there were many examples of Art Nouveau in traditional painting, the movement became heavily tied into architectural design and spawned a new and unique model of architecture that has been aesthetically difficult to duplicate. As such, there have been several institutions that have preserved the history of this art movement and displayed it for posterity.
The Philadelphia Museum of Art, for example, houses examples of art that display historical and contemporary significance and are of an artistic merit. Additionally, the museum provides exhibitions and educational programs for the public so as to increase their appreciation and understanding of decorative arts and its associated heritage, methods and techniques.
Of course, in order to preserve the greatness of the history of the art movement, those artists who were responsible for the creation, development and proliferation of the movement need to be acknowledged, More importantly, however, the process in which they developed the movement during their lifetime needs to be examined in order to place the movement in its proper perspective.
Mackintosh Charles Rennie, (born June 7th, 1968, Glasgow died Dec. 10, 1928, London) was a Scottish artist and designer who was prominent in the Arts and Crafts Movements in Great Britain. He acted as an apprentice to a local artistic named John Hutchinson and attended evening classes at the Glasgow School of Art, In collaboration with three other students. Mackintosh solidified an international reputation as a designer of unorthodox items. That is, instead of centering his artwork on traditional paintings and portraits, he centered his work on atypical items such as posters, craftwork and furniture. In contrast to conventional contemporary fashion, his work was light, elegant and original and these attributes are exemplified by the four remarkable tearooms he designed in Glasgow circa 1896 to1904 and in other domestic interiors of his design in the early 1900s.
Mackintosh’s chief architectural projects at the Glasgow School of Art were considered the first original example of Art Nouveau architecture in Great Britain. Examples of such works include:
1. The 1901 International exhibition, Glasgow (1898)
2. The Hauseines Junsfreundes (1901)
3. The Windyhill, Kilmacolm (1899-1901)
4. The Hill House Helens burgh (1902)
5. The Willow Tea Rooms, Glasgow (1904)
6. The Scotland Street School (1904-06)
An Image by Mackintosh. (1899)
Although, all contain certain traditional characteristics, they also reveal the mind of an exceptionally inventive person’s aesthetic perceptions. However, he did not maintain his association with thus movement and by 1914, had virtually ceased to practice. Thereafter, he devoted himself to water color painting during the time period art nouveau was flourishing.
Art nouveau was an ornamental style of art the flourished between 1890 and 1910 and existed throughout Europe and the United States. Specifically, art nouveau is characterized by its use of a singular, sinuous, organic line and it was employed significantly in architecture, interior design jewelry and glass designed posters and illustrations. In a way, the movement was a deliberate attempt to create a new style free that was free of the imitative historicism that dominated much of the prior 19th century art. Art Nouveau was a radical departure from this and it was first developed in England. Soon after, it spread else including Germany where it was called Jugendstil, in Autria where it was called; Sezessionstil in Austria; in Italy where it was called both Stile Floreale and Stile Liberty; and in Spain where it was called both Modernismo and Modernista. The term Art Nouveau was coined by a gallery in Paris that exhibited much of this work.
There were a great number of artists and designers who worked in the Art Nouveau style, some of the more prominent were the Scottish, architect and designer Charles Rennie Mackintosh, who specialized in a predominantly geometric line and particularly influenced the Austrian Sezessionstil; the Belgian architects Henry van de Velde and Victor Horta, whose extremely sinuous and delicate structure influenced the French architect Hector Guimard, another important figure; the American
glassmaker Louis Tiffany. Below are examples of images of art nouveau:
Unfortunately, art movements can not survive forever and, as time wears on, art movements that were once popular cease to be popular and have to make way for the next generation of artists and their progressive developments in the world of art. After 1910, Art Nouveau appeared old fashioned and limited and was generally abandoned as a distinct decorative style. The style was of great importance, however, in moving toward the 20th century aesthetic of unity of design.
However, the impact of the Art Nouveau movement still resonates to this very day and the influence of the movement is still quite visible in architecture, furniture, etc. As such, the movement can be considered a successful as it has strongly stood the test of time.
Art Nouveau Photography
Art Nouveau (1890-1914), is a kind of modern art movement which is said to be the “first twentieth century modern style.” (BBC.). It is also called by Germans, “Jugendstil,” and in Spain, “Modernismo.” First, let us look at the history of how Art Nouveau started. In the late nineteenth century, heavy machinery started to be introduced in Europe; this is the sign of the age of “Industrial Revolution;” some people abhorred it, and some people warmly welcomed it. The first group of people, who abhorred or resisted “mass production” with the use of heavy machines, started the “Arts and Crafts Movement.” This movement or group of artists still clung to the “look and feel of Renaissance Art.” The second group of people who warmly welcomed the idea of mass production using machines was called “Art Nouveau.” (Showker, F.). Prominent features and styles evident of Art Nouveau (“nouveau” means “modern”) are the following:
- Sinuous, elongated, curvy lines
- The whiplash line
- Vertical lines and height
- Stylised flowers, leaves, roots, buds and seedpods
- The female form – in a pre-Raphaelite pose with long, flowing hair
- Exotic woods, marquetry, iridescent glass, silver and semi-precious stones (BBC.)
It is said, “art began to take on a connected curved line.” That the “lilting line” was influenced by “Asian art,” probably because of imported “woodcuts” from Japan. Notice the Chrysler building photo above. This is a good example of Art Nouveau Photography. Why? Art Nouveau has that classic look, style and texture, applied to modern structure, figures or emblems. The Chrysler Building has a minaret, designed with concave curves, that shows the classic style evident of an Art Nouveau.
Take note that the Chrysler Building is a skyscraper, which is a very modern structure. Classic curves applied to a modern structure; this is the reason why Art Nouveau is considered a “modern” art movement. Notice, too, that the photo has only two tones, other than the black, the second color is an off-white, brownish-gold color. This photo is called “sepia.” So if you see a photo that has a classic touch with this color, then it is an Art Nouveau Photograph. One of the most renowned Art Nouveau graphic artist and commercial designer is “Alphonse Marie Mucha (1860-1939).” (Showker, F.). Artists like Mucha believed that “all the arts should work in harmony to create a total work of art, or Gesamtkunstwerk: buildings, furniture, textiles, clothes, and jewelry.” (Greenhalgh, P.). The difference of Art Nouveau movement from other modern art movements is about the mixture of modern and post-modern concept of art. Modern arts like dada, surrealism, abstract expressionism and neo-platicism all are focusing on revealing horrible truths of the present situation. Dada is a nihilist kind of art movement, while surrealism is an escape from reality jumping into a dream; abstract expressionism and neo-platicism both express the real feelings of the artist on issues of the present situation. They are much like propagandas. Art Nouveau is an embrace of the modern and post-modern; hard machinery of the Industrial Revolution softened by the touch of nature and women.
The influence of Art Nouveau gave birth to “Victorian furniture, Tiffany” lamps, and “artsmiths” who used “flowing lines,” soft tones and “beautifully sullen women.” It also started the design of structures with “iron” at the start of the twentieth century. If you see iron grills with vine-like designs, you’ll know where the influence came from. The Art Nouveau Movement inspired greatly “artists, illustrators, and the printing trade in America, including the 60’s hippies movement.” It is also continuously used in “visual communications industry,” of the modern era. Until today, this kind of art movement had been used to show elegance, class, and feminine beauty in this hard, rigid world. (Showker, F.).
Works Cited
- Sohm, J., Corbis. 2008. Chrysler Building in New York at sunset – 1999. The New York Times. Retrieved June 6, 2008. [http://images.google.com.ph/imgres?imgurl=http://img.nytstore.com/IMAGES/NSAPCP5LF-BLWH_LARGE.JPG&imgrefurl=http://www.nytstore.com/ProdDetail.aspxprodId14335&h=350&w=350&sz=20&hl=tl&start=169&um=1&tbnid=poSKIo-vg7AhuM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=120&prev=/imagesqchryslerbuildingstart162ndsp18um1hltlsaN].
- Showker, F. Art Nouveau. 1996-1999. DT&G Magazine. The Design Center Publications. Retrieved June 6, 2008. [http://www.graphic-design.com/DTG-Library.html.].
- Greenhalgh, P. 2000. Introduction to Art Nouveau. National Gallery of Art Anatomy of an Exhibition. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art. Retrieved June 6, 2008. [http://www.nga.gov/feature/nouveau/exhibit_intro.shtm].
- Period style. Homes. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved June 6, 2008. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/homes/design/period_artnouveau.shtml].
Ink On Paper: Zhao Mengfu’s Sheep And Goat
Literati paintings aim for free expression of ideas, feelings, and emotions rather than the truthful portrayal of the world. Cultivation of the mind was given more importance than perfection of structure in literati art. They are created by intellectual representatives and academics who incorporate their knowledge of poetry and other arts into their paintings.[1]
This paper will discuss Sheep and Goat – a literati art created by one of the most influential artists in the entire history of Chinese painting, Zhao Mengfu. Aside from symbolism, the paper will also discuss a brief history of the period when the painting was produced. It will also look at the artist himself and what drove him to come up with this artwork. Other issues which are related to the theme of the artwork will also be discussed.
Sheep and Goat: The Artwork
On the left side of the painting is a sketch of a rather proud-looking sheep and right beside it is a goat with its head bowed down. On the painting’s leftmost and upper right sections are Chinese calligraphy inscribed in black ink. Scattered all over the painting are Chinese prints in red ink.
The painting is an allegory which centers on the issue of dynastic loyalty. The sheep and the goat represent Su Wu and Li Ling, two Han dynasty generals, who were both captured by traveling Hsiung-nu tribes[2] who were at war with the Han. During their captivity, they were both offered a choice to serve the Hsiung-nu tribe. Su Wu remained loyal to the Han and refused to compromise. As a result of this, they forced him to remain in the desert and herd sheep for almost twenty years. Li Ling, on the other hand, gave in to the Hsiung-nu tribe. Though he was released, his return to the Han became an evidence of his disloyalty to his empire.
Symbolism
The sheep’s body was given a mottled effect by using watery ink which was applied in blobs and puddles. The goat, on the other hand, is painted in a drier manner by using brush strokes applied briskly over the surface of the paper. The sheep is illustrated in a noble, arrogant manner to represent Su Wu’s strong spirit. The goat, however, appears embarrassed to look directly into his friend’s eyes.[3]
Zhao Mengfu’s declaration of creating art the literati way was reinforced by the vigorous style of the calligraphy matching the ink values of the painting. The inscription on the left, however, has no symbolic significance to the subject of Sheep and Goat. Then again, it hints of some relevance to his personal experiences. It reads:
“I have often painted horses but have never before painted sheep or goats. So when Cliung-lisin asked for a painting, I did this playfully from life. Although it may not approach the old masters, it does capture something of the way they were (and I am).”
Zhao Mengfu
Zhao Mengfu was sometimes called by traditional Chinese writers the last of the Eight Princes of Calligraphy for his powerful influence on the historical development of calligraphy styles. Zhao appears to many as one of the exuberant talents of Chinese high culture and a man of all-around genius.[4] He was also one of the most valued and highly influential literati disciples of his age, with a collection of greatly competent literary samples in varied genres. Aside from this, he also had a reputable career as a civil official. He met all the criteria for distinction in the minds of the scholar elite – all except one. He was a distant relative of the Song royal house. When he was in his twenties, the region fell to the invading Yuan armies. For a decade, he hid from the world apparently observing the ideal of the scholar under one dynasty who will not serve the succeeding dynasty. In his mid-thirties, he came back and gave in to the strong urgings of eminent Chinese of that time and agreed to serve as an official of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. This blemish of disloyalty brought him scornful rejections by many relatives and early associates.
Zhao himself was uneasy about his position. This was depicted in a poem[5] he wrote about a painting depicting T’ao Yuan-ming’s[6] return to his recluse home after resigning his official position. He acknowledged correctness of Tao’s motives and admires his noble character as seen in his withdrawal and his uncomplaining acceptance of the humble life imposed on him. Yet Zhao suggested that this is a matter in which each person must make his own decision, according to his own time.
Nevertheless, Zhao’s admirers hoped to draw attention away from his failure to remain loyal to the Song dynasty. In fact, in his paintings, he broke through limits of convention. The techniques he used and concepts drawn from calligraphy, transformed painting into a new art form.
Yuan Dynasty
In 1210, the Mongols invaded northern China from Central Asia, opening a new chapter in the history and art of that ancient land. Under the dynamic leadership of Gengis Khan, the Mongol armies made an extraordinarily swift advance into China. By 1215, the Mongols had destroyed the Jin dynasty’s capital at Beijing and had taken control of northern China. Two decades later, they attacked the Song dynasty in southern China. It was not until 1279, however, that the last Song emperor fell in the hands of Genghis Khan’s grandson, Kublai Khan. Kublai proclaimed himself the new emperor of China and founded the Yuan dynasty.[7]
The Song Dynasty, despite its cultural magnificence, is regarded by historians as an age of weakness in the Chinese state. It was during this time that there was a vast frugality in area and influence, experiences of degrading military powerlessness, and a mood of nostalgia bordering on escapism. The conquest of China by the Mongols put China completely under foreign rule for the first time. Even though the Mongols implemented their political policies, it did not have a widespread interruption to the arts in China. Apparently, it was the Mongol ruling elite who adopted Chinese customs and habits. Painters liked to depict scenes of the ruling elite’s life of horse racing and hunting. Portrayals of horses had served for centuries as pictorial metaphors for the character and special concerns of the Chinese literati and scholar-officials and could carry a variety of auspicious wishes and other messages.[8]
It was during this dynasty that the artists illustrated their spirits and souls in their works. The artistic academics became the primary figures in painting, and they demonstrated the dramatic characters inherent in brush and ink as a means of portraying personality, thought, and emotion, as with Sheep and Goat. These paintings reveal simplicity, transcendence, and elegance. Court patronage of art was mainly limited to the Mongolian traditional arts such as textiles, jewelry, metalwork, and the like. Outside the court, cultural creativity in several of the arts, including calligraphy and painting, missed the customary court patronage and set the stage for rise of literati to the center of the painting world. The Mongols promoted a revival of Buddhist art as an effort to fortify their authority over the Chinese.
The artists of this time sought a return in their art to what they viewed as more ideal times. Artists such as Zhao Mengfu, firmly fixed the ideal of literati painting which gave importance to intellect and individual expression above elegant surface or mere representation.
Bibliography
Davis, A.R. (1983). Tao Yuan-ming, A.D. 365-427, His Works and Their Meaning. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Grabar, O. (1988). Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. New York: BRILL.
Huang, M.W. (1995). Literati and self-representation: autobiographical sensibility in the eighteenth-century Chinese novel. California: Stanford University Press.
Kleiner, M. (2008). International Student Edition: Gardner’s Art Through Ages: Global History. United Kingdom: Cengage Learning EMEA.
Mote, F.W. (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Philadelphia Museum of Art. (2009). Learning from Asian Art: China, Retrieved on May 18, 2009 from http://www.philamuseum.org/booklets/3_19_34_1.html
Rashke, M. (1978). New studies in Roman commerce with the east,” in Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt, Geschite und Kultur Roms im Spriegel der neueren Forschun II. Berlin and New York.
Rudenko, S.I. (1969). Die Kultur der Hsiung-nu und die Hugelgraber von Noin Ula, trans. Helmut Pollems. Bonn.
Wright, A.F., Cahill, J. (1960). The Confucian Persuasion. California: Stanford University Press.
[1] Philadelphia Museum of Art. (2009). Learning from Asian Art: China, Retrieved on May 18, 2009 from http://www.philamuseum.org/booklets/3_19_34_1.html
[2] Rudenko, S.I. (1969). Die Kultur der Hsiung-nu und die Hugelgraber von Noin Ula, trans. Helmut Pollems. Bonn.
[3] Grabar, O. (1988). Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. BRILL.
[4] Mote, F.W. (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
[5] Wright, A.F., Cahill, J. (1960). The Confucian Persuasion. California: Stanford University Press.
[6] T’ao Yuan-ming or Tao Qian, a Chinese poet chiefly remembered as a man forced into the recluse life by loyalty to a fallen dynasty. See Davis, A.R. (1983). Tao Yuan-ming, A.D. 365-427, His Works and Their Meaning. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
[7] Kleiner, M. (2008). International Student Edition: Gardner’s Art Through Ages: Global History. United Kingdom: Cengage Learning EMEA.
[8] Huang, M.W. (1995). Literati and self-representation: autobiographical sensibility in the eighteenth-century Chinese novel. California: Stanford University Press