Introduction
One of the most significant problems faced by the global community in modern times is human trafficking. This activity, which involves recruitment and transportation of people with the aim of exploiting them, has been condemned as “modern-day slavery”. Organizations such as the USAID denounce it as a crime against humanity and it is decried for victimizing millions of poor people from different nations all over the world for profit.
The scale of human trafficking is high with estimates being made that up to 800,000 people are trafficked across international borders annually, while many more are trafficked within the borders of their own countries (Jac-Kucharski, 2012). The scale of this problem has made led to many governments considering ways to combat the issue.
Human trafficking is a crime that violates the human and labor rights of an individual. In spite of the condemnation by the international community, human trafficking has continued to occur over the past decade. This paper will set out to define human trafficking and highlight some of the factors why it continues to occur today. The paper will discuss the effects of human trafficking and highlight some of the steps undertaken to mitigate and eventually end this degrading activity.
What is Human trafficking
Human trafficking is one of the greatest social ills of the twenty-first century. To understand what this ill entails, it would be important to offer an insightful definition of the term. In the view of Gonul (2012), human trafficking means “the recruitment, transportation or receipt of persons by means of the threat, coercion or deception to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person for the purpose of exploitation” (p.41).
From the definition, it can be observed that human trafficking involves the acquisition of people by improper means, including force, fraud or deception with the aim of exploiting them. Trafficked persons can travel voluntarily to their destination or then can be coerced or even kidnapped by the trafficker. When traveling is voluntarily, the trafficker deceives the victim that he/she is going to an agreed upon destination region for some enticing economic opportunity. The reality that the victim has been trafficked only emerges later.
A better understanding of what human smuggling is can be developed by contrasting it to human smuggling. Trafficking differs from human smuggling in a number of ways. While both activities involve the illegal movement of persons from one country to another, in smuggling, once the persons are in the designated country, they are released from any obligation to the transporter (Britton & Dean, 014).
In addition to this, the smuggled individuals know which country they are entering into and they often pay a lot of money to be moved into the country. In trafficking, the persons are moved illegally but they are not free from the transporter even after they are within the destination country.
In most cases, the transporter claims that the persons still owe them money and they have to work for them until the money is paid off (Britton & Dean, 2014). Another feature of trafficking is that the individual can be taken to a different country than originally planned or forced to engage in work that is different from what was initially agreed upon.
Figures of how many victims are involved in human trafficking are hard to get since the activity is shroud in secrecy. Collins (2014) comments that accurate figures are not available due to the secrecy of the crime and the fear that victims have of the retribution to themselves or their families should they escape or report their captors.
However, the USAID estimates that there are 12 to 27 million people enslaved and exploited through human trafficking (Collins, 2014). The exploitation of the trafficked persons takes place over a long period of time.
Factors that Contribute to Trafficking
The primary cause of human trafficking is poverty, which makes an individual vulnerable to traffickers. Trafficking involves acquiring and exploiting other people. The victims of human trafficking are often poor and vulnerable. Gonul (2012) confirms that studies have clearly identified notions of poverty and vulnerability as key causes of trafficking. Specifically, the lack of economic opportunities by individuals in their home country or region has been identified as a cause of trafficking.
A person who is desperate to escape poverty is vulnerable to deceit by human traffickers who often promise to offer economic opportunities at the foreign locations. Jac-Kucharski (2012) explains that the potential victims experience a myriad of push factors that impel them to leave the areas of origin.
These factors include low living standards and the lack of economic opportunities. The United Nations (2008) elaborates that the allure of opportunity serves to drive the poor and vulnerable into dangerous situations where they are at great risk of being exploited.
However, it should be noted that it is not only the poorest of the population who are victims of trafficking. In some cases, people who enjoy a modest income in their home country become victims of trafficking. In these cases, the victims seek better employment opportunities in foreign countries.
The traffickers promise to transport them to the new destination and link them with good employment opportunities. Collins (2014) illustrates that there are cases were victims pay as much as $7,000 to traffickers who are believed to be brokers of travel or employment before they are enslaved.
While human trafficking has existed for many decades, some factors in the modern world have increased its occurrence. The most significant factors that have led to the increase in human trafficking cases is the ease of travel and communications and the economic globalization experienced over the past 3 decades. Due to these features, the international criminal organizations that profit from human trafficking are able to easily engage in multiple activities in various countries.
Gonul (2012) reveals that trafficking activities have broadened and diversified under the influence of globalization. Jac-Kucharski (2012) declares that globalization enhances the possibilities of organized crime groups by making it easy for them to work in tandem with local syndicates in the source countries to acquire trafficked individuals at a decreased cost and with greater efficiency.
In addition to this, globalization has contributed to an increase in human trafficking by creating more demand for trafficked individuals. Onuoha (2011) asserts that globalization has also served to encourage human trafficking by creating an increase in the demand for cheap labor provided by trafficked persons. The monetary incentive for the traffickers to enslave people has therefore become greater than it was in previous decades.
The potential benefits obtained by the trafficker from the trafficking process have contributed to the human trafficking phenomenon. Trafficking is a multi-billion dollar activity and the financial gains for traffickers is great. Unlike in human smuggling where the person is released from any obligation to the transporter once he/she has reached the designated country, trafficked people are required to continue paying money to the trafficker for extended durations of time.
The potential financial gains motivate the trafficker to engage in multiple crimes to traffic people. Jac-Kucharski (2012) documents that most victims are coerced into migration and forcefully moved across international borders.
The traffickers who engage in these actions take on significant risks since if they are discovered by the authorities they will face criminal punishment. However, many choose to engage in human trafficking since they are confident that the financial benefits of the activity are so substantial as to outweigh the potential risk of punishment.
Consequences of Trafficking
Trafficking has many negative impacts on the individual and the society as a whole. Arguably the most damaging impact of human trafficking is the physical and psychological trauma experienced by the victims. Trafficked individuals are often subjected to various forms of abuse. The primary objective of the trafficker during the trafficking process is to keep the victim under control and ensure that the victim complies with all the rules. Abuse is the primary way through which the control is enforced all through the trafficking process.
The abuse includes physical violence, deprivation of food and sleep, sexual abuse and psychological abuse. Physical violence against the victims leads to injuries, disabilities and in extreme cases death. The United Nations (2008) reports that due to the prolonged and repeated abuse suffered by the trafficked persons, they experienced a myriad of psychological issues including PTSD, disorientation, anxiety, depression, and difficulty concentrating.
The trauma worsens over the course of the trafficking process and it is likely to persist even after the person is free from the exploitation. Trafficking therefore has long-term consequences on the lives of the victims who suffer during the process and even after they are freed.
Human trafficking has an enormous economic cost on the society. To begin with, the community is deprived of the productivity that would have been provided by the imprisoned traffickers. The trafficked individuals do not play a part in the enhancement of their society since they do not get paid or pay taxes. The other economic cost comes from the significant resources dedicated to the prevention of trafficking.
To combat the issue, governments have had to invest in additional law enforcement officers who investigate suspected crimes and arrest the perpetrators (Kaneti, 2011). The resources of the criminal justice system are also used to prosecute and imprison traffickers. In addition to this, the victims may need various social support services form the government.
This might be in the form of healthcare, welfare, or even witness protection. The United Nations (2008) reveals that the ongoing care and support of victims represents a significant economic burden for the home country of the victims.
A troubling impact of human trafficking is that it leads to an increase in crime levels in the society. Human trafficking is a hugely lucrative activity and it is estimated that this illicit crime network produces a revenue of $30 billion dollars annually. Neumann (2015) notes that human trafficking as a criminal enterprise is second only to drugs in terms of profitability to transnational organized crime groups. Due to the huge profit motivation, organized criminal groups are keen to continue engaging in this activity.
The revenue obtained by the criminal organizations from these activities are used to finance other crimes. Siskin and Wyler (2013) document that human trafficking operations are associated with other crimes including bribery, arms dealing, drug trafficking and money laundering. The significant financial resources obtained from the human trafficking operations enable these additional crimes.
The victims of trafficking also end up being used to engage in criminal activities. Siskin and Wyler (2013) report that women who are used as sex slaves are at times used to smuggle and distribute drugs. This report is corroborated by Neumann (2015) who reveals that in South America, victims of trafficking are forced into working for criminal organizations as prostitutes or drug runners.
Mitigating Human Trafficking
From the various consequences of the trafficking in human beings illustrated above, it is evident that this activity is detrimental to the social, political and economic development of societies. The global community agrees that human trafficking is an undesirable and criminal activity. World leaders have acknowledged that trafficking in persons is “a form of modern slavery that violates human rights, country security, economies, and public health in every nation” (Collins, 2014, p.69).
There is agreement that action needs to be taken to deal with this issue. The United Nations (2008) recognizes that traditional methods of preventing human trafficking have failed to have a significant impact on the issue. It would therefore be important to consider effective ways of mitigating and eventually eradicating human trafficking.
Prevention strategies are deemed important in the quest to deal with trafficking. Collins (2014) notes that many nations attach a high level of importance to prevention efforts since they are deemed to be the best method to deal with human trafficking. The first widely adopted prevention strategy is the increase in public awareness on the issue.
The public involves the people who are at greatest risk of being lured by traffickers. In many instances, traffickers take advantage of the ignorance of their victims to engage in trafficking. Through public awareness campaigns, individuals can be informed on the tactics used by traffickers. Tverdova (2011) documents that many accounts of human trafficking have been made over the decade with the aim of publicizing the problem. This will help potential victims identify traffickers and avoid being trafficked.
Addressing the economic situations that predisposes people to exploitation by the traffickers is key to mitigating human trafficking. Nicola and Rijen (2014) declare that preventive measures must consider taking action in countries of origin, where the recruitment takes place. Specifically, the local situation in the country must be addressed.
As previously noted, poverty predisposes individuals to be victims of exploitation. Preventive measures should therefore address the issue of poverty. Such measures should reduce poverty and increase the education opportunities available to the at risk populations.
A significant step by the global community in combatting human trafficking was the adoption of the Trafficking Protocol in November 2000. This protocol, developed by the United Nations, sought to make it easier to identify trafficked persons and punish the traffickers (Kaneti, 2011). An important aspect of the protocol is that it was victim-friendly in that it protected the interests of the victims.
Some compensation and privacy compensation measures were included in the protocol. Since its adoption, the Trafficking protocol has been ratified by 117 countries and its articles are being applied in combatting human trafficking. The protocol has contributed in the rise in political and popular interest in combating human trafficking.
Another strategy to combat human trafficking is the enactment of stricter border policies. In most cases, human trafficking involves moving people across international borders. Traffickers make use of lax border rules or unsecured borders to move people from host country to destination country. Collins (2014) documents that traffickers rely on weak border controls and the bribery of boarder security guards and other officials to cross borders.
Securing the borders will therefore be an important step in preventing trafficking in person. Law enforcement patterns heavily influence the actions of traffickers. The United Nations (2008) asserts that stricter border controls will assist in the prevention of trafficking by deterring and preventing irregular movements across borders. If the risks involved in the trafficking process are too high, the traffickers will choose not to engage in this activities.
Discussion
The international community has shown great commitment to addressing the human trafficking scourge facing the world today. International organizations such as the UN have taken on a leadership role in tackling the problem. Individual countries and the international community are not yet effective in fighting human trafficking or protecting and rehabilitating its victims (Tverdova, 2011).
However, the world has a greater understanding of what human trafficking entails, the general profile of the trafficking victims and how traffickers recruit potential victims. It can be hoped that with concerted effort, the world will be rid of human trafficking in future.
Conclusion
This paper set out to discuss the great social ill that is human trafficking with a focus on the factors that Contribute to its prevalence and ways to mitigate the heinous crime. It began by defining human trafficking as the activity involving the acquisition of people by improper means, including force, fraud or deception with the aim of exploiting them. Poverty has been highlighted as the primary driver of human trafficking. Traffickers exploit the economic situation of the poor to engage in this activity.
Globalization has also contributed to the increase in trafficking cases over the past decade. The paper has illustrated how human trafficking is detrimental to the social, political and economic development of societies. The paper has noted that effective counter-trafficking strategies can only be developed if one understands what drives the activity.
Prevention and mitigation strategies should therefore address the ignorance and poverty by the poor, who are the primary source of victims for the traffickers. The government should also enhance stricter border control to prevent traffickers from smuggling people out of the country. Human trafficking is a crime that violates the human and labor rights of an individual. All efforts must therefore be taken to abolish this heinous crime and therefore prevent the numerous negative consequences of human trafficking.
References
Britton, H., & Dean, L. (2014). Policy Responses to Human Trafficking in Southern Africa: omesticating International Norms. Human Rights Review, 15(2), 305-328.
Collins, H. (2014). Human Trafficking in the Indo-Asia-Pacific Region. DISAM Journal of International Security Assistance Management. DISAM Annual, 3(1), 69-77.
Gonul, O. (2012). International cooperation in combating human trafficking in the EU: evidence from Turkey. Irish Journal of Sociology, 20(1), 39-64.
Jac-Kucharski, A. (2012). The Determinants of Human Trafficking: A US Case Study. International Migration, 50(6), 150-165.
Kaneti, M. (2011). Project Trafficking: Global Unity in Addressing a Universal Challenge? Human Rights Review, 12(1), 345-361.
Neumann, V. (2015). Never mind the metrics: disrupting human trafficking by other means. Journal of International Affairs, 68(2), 39-53.
Nicola, J., & Rijen, C. (2014). Prevention of Human Trafficking for Labor Exploitation: The Role of Corporations. Journal of International Human Rights, 12(1), 47-73.
Onuoha, B. (2011). The state human trafficking and human rights issues in Africa. Contemporary Justice Review, 14(2), 149-166.
Siskin, A., & Wyler, L. (2013). Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Tverdova, Y. (2011). Human Trafficking in Russia and Other Post-Soviet States. Human Rights Review, 12(3), 329-344.
United Nations (2008). An introduction to human trafficking: vulnerability, impact and action. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
Public Schooling In America
Introduction
The American education system is arguably one of the most advanced in the world. There is no doubt that America places a great emphasis on its education system providing adequate funding (Hochschild and Scovronick 27). In fact, research studies prove that American public schools remain some of the best-funded in the world. American teachers enjoy one of the best working conditions and wages in the world (Rogers 22). A large number of elementary and secondary school teachers in the United States obtain college and university degrees each year, which consequently improves the level of education.
In addition, American schools boast some of the best teaching technologies, which also one of the guarantees of the good future for children (Hochschild and Scovronick 31). Despite this, it is clear that American public schools face certain difficulties (Rogers 38). Scholars claim that American public schooling has little capacity to guarantee good performance of students. Some reports indicate that in some cases students graduate from elementary schools and high schools merely illiterate. There are reports that some students cannot even read or write, yet they are expected to succeed in their lives. Moreover, public schools face problems with discipline.
For instance, there are many school dropouts, pregnancies and cases of drug abuse every year. Massive campaigns and initiatives are in place to protect the children in schools and their future, including the “No Child Left Behind” and school vouchers. However, such campaigns have minimal impact on the rate of deterioration of public schooling in the United States. Arguably, the United States, despite its advance in technology and a great economy, is under education crisis that requires immediate action.
So, what and where is the problem?
Lack of focus on results seems to be the most evident problem that has the observable effect on American public schooling. Critics of the American education system provide some evidence to support the claim that public education system lacks focus on results, despite the considerable funding.
They argue that students are expected to achieve high levels of education, while the education process takes priority over an analysis of the results when making educational policies (Hochschild and Scovronick 43). Critics further argue that within policy-making circles, the main idea they have is to see the children achieve good grades and enter colleges and universities, but the analysis of the results seems to be out of their agenda (Smith 18).
As far as this argument is concerned, its validity is not doubtable because the idea of placing an emphasis on results and an in-depth analysis of the results seem to be not appropriate. In fact, the lack of focus on results and overemphasizing the process of education can be one important issue to consider new policies to improve the system. The American education system and society, in general, do not hold students accountable for their individual performances.
In addition, the system does not consider holding the government-funded schooling system accountable for the failure or success of the students’ performances, which also reflects its performance on behalf of the public. In fact, the public has failed to hold the system accountable for the performance of the students every year since the end of the Second World War. According to critics in academics, the public education system is itself a cause of the failure in American public schooling. Therefore, critics argue that since the school system and the public are a failure, the students have no other option than to follow the example and thus fail to perform.
Despite the appeal from the public and the scholarly world to enhance the schooling system through reforms in the education sector, there has been minimal impact on the failing system. It is evident that most of the efforts to transform public education sector have been marred with half-hearted measures that produce minimal reforms. Critics argue that the history of reform in the public schooling system is full of misdiagnosis of the root problems. The efforts are half-hearted, full of blame-shifting, and inappropriate for reforming an education system meant for the world’s largest economy.
The relevant institutions which were supposed to reform the education system seem to be going round in circles, rather than working together for the best of the students (Smith 43). According to analysts, every person in these policy-making circles seems to be an expert, but most of the individuals in the system have undergone the same process they now want to reform, and that the problem of failure has been instilled in them when undergoing their education in America.
During every process designed to reform the education system, debates normally arise, and thus there is an illusion that bars the progress from taking effect. The debates arise on a wide range of topics regarding the context of the public schooling system. For instance, debates normally arise on how to handle the schools, whether they should be centralized or progressive (Smith 43). In addition, debates arise over how to manage the schools, how to computerize the education system, how to handle and establish pre-schools and other issues that need to be changed in order to transform the federal education system.
While the efforts are meant to change and improve the American education system, the debates on these issues have always been a hindrance to the reform process, which in turn leads the education system to failure. Rather than changing the process of handling these debates in future reform attempts, the policy-makers seem to take the wrong belief that the newest trend will succeed in spite of the failures in the preceding systems.
There is a belief among the critics of the education system of the United States that public education systems all over the world fail because the lobbies in the education and public sectors are normally sabotaged or comprise the education rather than improve it. For instance, critics argue that lobbies such as teacher associations, legislators, parent associations and school administrators are mostly interested in expanding their gains from the education system, which is one of the largest consumers of the public money (Reese 73).
According to evidence, there seems to be some truth in this argument. However, attributing the failure of reform to sedition only works to vindicate the much-needed reform of the system. Most of the ideas of reforming the system seem to be irrelevant or destructive rather than useful in providing the public with a good education for the children. It is evident that even if the political interests of the lobbyists fail to take effect, the reforms would fail or even take down the current education system (Reese 73).
Cultural and social trends within American society are some of the areas that cause the problems in the education system. According to some critics, the social and cultural trends in the United States, which began in the 1960s, destroy the discipline in the schools, cause a decline of moral basis for public education and destruction of a national consensus on what American public schools should teach.
There seems to be some truth in this argument because American society has changed dramatically since the era of baby boomers and the massive recognition of excessive child rights (Reese 67). However, this argument does not provide a detailed explanation of the reason why students fail to gain communication and computational skills required of them if they must succeed in the job market.
In addition, most capitalistic critics of the education system tend to believe that the problem can be solved if the market competition is applied in public schooling. They are of the opinion that this will allow the public to hold all the relevant institutions responsible for the individual performances (Reese 107). In the view of good performance among individual students and the public education system, the argument seems to be a good way of ensuring that the school system is held accountable for its own performance and that the results are a priority when making policies (Reese 102).
However, its long-term impact is still doubtable because it tends to ignore the impact of government policies, which tends to inhibit the success of the schooling system (Reese 102). Schools will never succeed when the government policy is still imposing rigid measures and, personnel rules, regulations and bureaucratic mandates on the schools and the education system.
In conclusion, the problems facing the education system are a product of a number of issues, ranging from the social, economic and political issues that lack proper methods to reform the system, poor planning, and inability to hold a consensus on how American can drive its education system.
Works Cited
Hochschild, Jennifer and Nathan Scovronick. The American Dream and the Public Schools. New York: Oxford University press, 2011. Print.
Reese, William. America’s Public Schools: From the Common School to “No Child Left Behind”. Washington, DC: JHU press, 2010. Print
Rogers, Laurie. Betrayed: How the Education Establishment Has Betrayed America and What you do about it. Mason, OH: Cengage learning
Smith, Winfield. The Rise and fall of Public Education in America: The Interdependence of Public Education and Society. Philadelphia: AuthorHouse, 2006. Print.
Alternative Medicine: Musical Therapy
Introduction
Musical therapy refers to a process applied by healthcare practitioners to provide treatment through music. The aim of musical therapy is to meet patient needs through social activities that encourage communication through sharing and practice (Smith 38). A patient undergoes musical therapy only if a doctor recommends it. Numerous approaches apply in providing patients with this form of treatment.
Human beings have an inherent ability to respond favorably to music and its numerous concepts. Musical concepts used in therapy apply anatomies of social, spiritual, objective, psychological, expressive or artistic forms. Although this practice had a slow reception, it has grown in leaps and bounds since the turn of the century. The number of musical therapists has grown because people continue to have a greater awareness of the practice (McFerrin 100). Statistics by the American Music Therapy Association indicate that over the last couple of years, it has grown to over 5,000 certified members. The medical practice provides help to various people in society under a variety of settings (Smith 42).
History of musical therapy
The association between music and healthcare dates back to ancient Greek and World War I. People in ancient Greek had Apollo who was their god of prophecy, poetry, healing, and music (King 16). He had the ability to cure mental diseases through the power of music. Although countries such as Egypt also applied music for treatment, its formal recognition and practice started during the start of World War I. Musicians across the United States of America would visit various hospitals to play music for servicemen who offered different services during the war (King 19). Development of musical therapy has had a lot of influence from both ancient and modern philosophers. The most notable philosophers who made an impact in music therapy include Plato and Aristotle.
Aristotle argued that music has the ability to affect the soul (Smith 51). He said that the effect of music on the soul helps to purify emotions, which results in improved health conditions, especially for mental patients. Recent studies have also demonstrated the science behind the use of music for treatment. Researchers at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, released an analysis of their research on the neuroscience of music early this year (McFerrin 112). Led by Daniel Levitin, the research analysis indicated that music has properties that help to relieve anxiety in people. The research also established that music can trigger the human body into producing a high number of antibodies responsible for immunity (McFerrin 117).
Application of musical therapy
Musical therapists have perfected the art of using music as a treatment tool for various medical conditions. This method of treatment applies mostly to patients with autism, mental disorders, as well as those with memory and thinking impairments (King 30). Musical therapy also applies in treating people with sensory impairments, disabilities, complications due to drug addiction, developmental disabilities, as well as the elderly. Musical therapists offer their services in a variety of settings that include community centers, prisons, learning institutions, hospitals, special schools, day care centers, and hospices among others. The uniqueness of this form of treatment is a mandatory musical experience for every patient who visits a therapist (Smith 80).
Treating a patient involves four crucial activities from which one can choose to develop their musical experience. The first activity is improvising, which involves a patient creating and singing his or her music within an indefinitely short time. A patient needs to perform without preparation by responding to feelings and situations explored during therapy. The second activity is re-creating, which involves a patient singing an already composed song (King 44). This activity helps in developing vocal, imitation, memorization, participation, performance, and practicing skills in a patient.
The third activity is composing, which involves a therapist assisting a patient to come up with a creative musical piece. Help from a therapist is important in providing technical assistance. The fourth activity is listening, which involves a patient listening to music and developing a reaction out of it. Patients respond by taking relaxed postures, meditating, imagining, and reminiscing among others (King 53).
Musical therapists
Therapists often choose the kind of music used in every session depending on the condition of a patient, their preferences, and objectives of treatment. Therapists prepare for a treatment sessions, and provide a detailed appraisal of activities with every patient (McFerrin 134). Therapy preparations involve setting objectives for every session, developing a treatment plan, and identifying the best musical experiences for a patient depending on their health condition. Musical therapists ought to have certain qualifications and individual qualities for them to get a license. Individual qualities include good musical ability, a stable health condition, maturity, stamina, motivation, emotional intelligence, as well as a good sense of self-awareness (King 70). Musical therapists ought to have academic qualifications that include a degree in music therapy or its equivalent from a recognized institution.
Conclusion
Indeed, music is medicine. Musical therapy is one of the many forms of treatment used today. The medical practice is gaining popularity across the world, as more people are willing to learn about it. Just like any other form of treatment, musical therapy is an experience that many patients dread to go through. Therapy sessions create a lot of anxiety among patients, thus making the practice less relaxed and boring. To achieve success with this treatment, it is important for the therapist to develop intimate connections with their patients.
Works Cited
King, Betsey. Music Therapy: Another Path to Learning and Communication for Children on the Autism Spectrum. New York: Future Horizons, 2004. Print.
McFerrin, Katrina. Music Therapy. New York: Cengage learning, 2013. Print.
Smith, Rachel. Music Therapy in Context: Music, Meaning and Relationship. California: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print.